Digital Diversity Essay -- Writing Composition Education Internet Essa

Advanced Diversity Does the worldwide extent of the Internet involve a conclusion to the social and recorded assorted variety of style in structure? In the previous a very long while, innovation has prompted a mammoth associated system of PCs. This new Internet (and for the most part the World Wide Web) has become another correspondence and data trade apparatus. All information that used to be transmitted by voice, paper, radio, TV, or different broad communications gadget should now be possible so carefully, and these messages can be close to home just as wide perused. All through the ages, the style of messages being conveyed has reflected upon the way of life and history of their inception. In spite of the fact that the Internet arrives at most places on the planet, it won't homogenize the style of substance found on it. Noteworthy bits of the Internet’s causes lie in American history. In the mid 1960’s, researchers started to look for a method of better speaking with one another, basically to share data in a quick and simple way. Because of advancements in bundle exchanging innovation, the idea of wide region PC system could be figured it out. Specialists at DARPA started take a shot at ARPANET, which, through a progression of enhancements and changes, would inevitably turn into the foundation for the advanced Internet. These systems were initially worked by associating each PC in turn, and including more as they were required. All things considered, ARPANET was an American military creation built during the Cold War as a quicker and all the more innovative correspondence system. In any case, the other use for the maturing Internet was data sharing by researchers all over the globe, not only ones at American foundations. Besides, the World Wide Web was created by Tim Bern... ...the style of others they see on the grounds that there is a person inside every PC client who doesn’t need to be precisely the same as every other person. With its worldwide degree, the Internet may wind up advancing assorted variety as opposed to driving homogeneity. Reference index Brenner, Steven E. Perl Routines to Manipulate CGI input http://www.duke.edu/~nss8/cgi-receptacle/cgi-lib.pl Manovich, Lev, online chronicle: http://www.manovich.net. Manovich, Lev, The Engineering of Vision from Constructivism to Computers, online Ph.D. Exposition, 1993. Rubinstein, Geoffery, Printing: History and Development, http://www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/print.html Sherrard, Nathan, online papers: http://www.duke.edu/~nss8/writing20/expositions Sherrard, Nathan, The Digital World Sullivan, Danny, Foreign Language Internet Search Engines, http://www.bizforms.com/search.htm

Telecommunication Net Neutrality

Question: Portray about the Net Neutrality? Answer: Official Summary This task mirrors internet fairness in these advanced days. In any case, this investigation mirrors that unhindered internet is the significant pattern in nowadays of media transmission industry. A few strategy and issues that relates with the unhindered internet has been present in this task connects with the social settings of the approach of media transmission industry. Be that as it may, this examination additionally speak to the present outline of the internet fairness in India. Through the task, experts portrays the complexities of the unhindered internet on the planet and gives an uncommon reference of India for understanding the complexities of internet fairness in India. The principle reason of expanding unhindered internet is the expansion number of offices that gave the system specialist co-ops to the clients. Dominant part of system specialist organizations in this world doesn't obstructed the outsiders movement over calling the IP in the web association. In the wake of p ropelling the web on the planet since 1980s, the web access suppliers still not incorporated any specialization or legitimate standards for utilization of web by the outsiders. This is the key explanation of expanding internet fairness in the World. From the perspective of India, unhindered internet is the current just as significant difficulties in light of the fact that TRAI (Telecommunication Regulatory Authentication of India) is as yet incapable to actualize fitting standards and guidelines remembering some important rule for terms of giving toll and clear network access. A few arrangements have been portrayed that immovably relates with the unhindered internet, for example, strategy in regards to web get to, web promoting willful, imperfections of system, and so on. Presentation Powell Cooper (2011) assumed that web lack of bias is one of the most specialized sounding expression just as horrible sounding expression inside the media transmission condition. Be that as it may, Coucheney, Maille Tuffin (2013) opined that internet fairness is understanding the working strategy of phone lines that begin to work since twentieth century. From the perspective of phone correspondence line, the specialist organizations of phone lines, for example, Airtel, Vodafone, BSNL, MTNL, Reliance, and so forth permits the client in dialing and interfacing with others over web. This kind of guideline is known as the unhindered internet. The deals that goes inside the servers are never constrained by the Internet Service Providers. During the hour of web surfing over web when the web client utilized web, they gets some speed. In any case, the information course in the web remain hypothetically same particularly when the web client use YouTube and Facebook. With no obstruction from the Internet Service Providers, clients are not permitted to get to any lawful sites or the web administration in web. Caverns (2012) contended that client can get to the lawful sites or the lawful web administration over web with the consent of network access suppliers. The specialist organizations of the media transmission administration in this world never obstructed the character of different gatherings over calling and furthermore never postpone the association for one specific number. Be that as it may, Cheng, Bandyopadhyay Guo (2011) refered to that the phone correspondence specialist organizations deferral or square the third partys telephone number when it was constrained by law. On the planet, there were most f the nations, for example, Australia, United State of America, Europe, China, and so forth have set a few principles for the media transmission specialist organizations in regards to their administration when it is given an unlimited and unfiltered telephone administration. During the hour of 1980s or 1990s, when the web was first propelled, there were no specific guidelines or guidelines by the administration as far as offering types of assistance to the client. Along these lines, the Internet Service Providers (ISP) didn't adhere to any standards or guidelines. In any case, there are telecom administrators that were likewise Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Along these lines, lion's share of telecom administrators keep up certain standards as far as offering support to the client (Guo, Cheng Bandyopadhyay, 2013). 2. Idea of Net Neutrality endure Cheng, Bandyopadhyay Guo (2011) refered to that unhindered internet is the idea of understanding of the men. The unhindered internet is made due since not many years before on the grounds that larger part of the web clients utilized web from most recent 30 years. In past years, utilization of web was minor. As the innovation change quickly, the utilization of web increment to a great extent. Subsequently, presentation of advanced cell in the network increment the utilization of web generally. In these advanced days, data innovation becomes increasingly elevated. In this manner utilization of web is one of the major and vital piece of the network. The Internet Service Providers on the planet attempts to make an intensity of shape just as attempts to control the traffic over web as indicated by the use of the net by the client (Guo, Cheng Bandyopadhyay, 2013). Aside from that, the Internet Service Providers gives a few different ways that permits the client in keeping alive the unhinde red internet. From the web traffic, the purchasers of the web clients requests for the hands off methodology as far as proceeding with the Internet Service Providers. The Internet Service Providers permits the client in adopting the proactive strategy of there is any infringement of the unhindered internet. The clients of the web are additionally permitted in enlisting their dismay to the input type of Internet Service Provider. As per the maintain of the unhindered internet, the client additionally compensated the Internet Service Providers. Nonetheless, so as to make better holding with the customer, the media transmission accomplice TRAI (Telecom Authority of India) makes a few principles and guidelines that are clear and exact standards as far as securing the internet fairness. As per the magistrate of Telecom Regulatory Authority in India, TRAI began on attempting to audit the data with respect to Internet Service Providers controls the whole traffic that streams over the web. TRAI gives their best exertion as far as directing the way toward controlling traffic over web. Through framing rules and set of clear review, TRAI make the web open and easy to understand. It permits TRAI in ensuring the unhindered internet. In early days, the client of web was little. Accordingly, TRAI had the option to set the standard effectively and track data from the web traffic. Along these lines, they faces numerous challenges regarding changing the framework since now the client of web is more than $800 billion. 3. Province of Net Neutrality in India In India, the idea of unhindered internet doesn't exists. As indicated by the executive of Center for Internet and Society in Bangalore in particular Sunil Abraham, TRAI still attempts to build up certain principles and guideline as far as keeping up the unhindered internet in India. For example, in 2006, the Telecom Regulatory Authority in India welcomed the ideas of the internet fairness fro, the partner and industrys viewpoint. In any case, it has been seen that, there were no proper arrangement of decides or guidelines that framed for the implementing just as maintaining unhindered internet. Then again, Coucheney, Maille Tuffin (2013) contended that the Internet Servce suppliers in India, for example, Airtel, BSNL, MTNL, Reliance, Tata DOCOMO, Vodafone, Aircel, Idea, and so forth are for the most part hold fast to the unhindered internet from the perspective of set of standard. Dominant part of the Internet Service Providers in India overlooked the unhindered internet. Crocioni (2011) opined that utilization of information traffic is expanded ever more elevated just as exponentially of TSPs. Along these lines, increment of web builds up a few issues from the perspective of web get to. In present situation, it has been distinguished that individuals or the web client interest for the free and open access administration in Internet. Firth Pierson (2011) contended that, lion's share of web client requests for the free access administration over web with no limitations. It has significantly expanded because of the fundamental supporters if various kinds of Application Servic e Providers accessibility in Internet. So as to guarantee the open web get to, the web administrator needs to manufacture the few administrative, for example, Act with the expectation of complimentary use, create circumstance just as utilize different methodologies that helps in managing the issues of Over the Top administrations. 4. Present Scenario of Net Neutrality 4.1 Policies on Net Neutrality As per the chiefs of TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India), the web access suppliers have not to give any permit charges till October, 2003. Along these lines, from the first November 2003, the Internet Service Providers needs to token a permit expense that was exorbitant Rs. 1 for every annum that was payable to W. E. F. In India, there isn't any limitation on giving number of administration to the client in each of the three classes of web access territories, for example, A, B and C. As per the survey report of Groh (2012), there are in excess of 390 Internet Service Provider licensees out of 135 ISPs in India. Guo, Cheng Bandyopadhyay (2012) refered to that in India, there are greater part of ISPs work various assistance aside from Vodafone. As indicated by the survey report of 2010, there were in excess of 12 million web client inside al part of India. The utilization of web was expanded in the wake of propelling the cell phone in India in 2002 (Owen, 2015). Along these li nes, in excess of 20 Internet Service Providers made the endorsers in India that are over 97% of the supporters. During that time, just 2% supporters were made by the other Internet Service Providers (ISPs) in India. Larger part of web supporters were made by the Airtel in the telecom advertise in India. The leading group of Telecom Regulatory Authority in India, gave 128 Internet Service Provider licenses as far as administration web communication (Greenstein, 2006). Be that as it may, just 32 ISP have begun to offer support of web te

Signs Your Country is in a Trade War

Signs Your Country is in a Trade War A trade war is an economic conflict that happens as a result of extreme protectionism.Protectionism occurs, when a country creates or increases tariffs (tax imposed on imports of goods and services) and trade barriers against another country in retaliation to the trade barriers created by the other country.A trade war usually starts when a nation makes attempts to protect her domestic industry and create jobs.If this goes on for a short while it may not cause any trade friction between other countries but if it lingers it may degenerate into a trade war.In order for a country to boost its domestic industry, the country will place tariffs on the import of goods; these tariffs are meant to give a competitive advantage to the domestic industries that produce the product.The price of these domestic goods will be cheaper when compared to imported goods.Due to the fact that the domestic prices of the goods are cheaper, there will be an increased demand for domestic goods more than imported goods.This increase in the demand for local goods will cause a boost in the production of domestic goods and lead to the creation of more jobs.When another country that supplies the same goods notices that tariffs or trade barriers have been set up against the importation of their goods to the country, they may want to retaliate.This is especially if the trading practices are considered unfair or if the domestic trade union of the other country pressures politicians to make the imported goods look less attractive and unappealing to the consumers.The misunderstanding that ensues after this can cause friction between the two countries and if it lingers for long, the country on whose goods tariffs have been placed can decide to retaliate and do the same to the goods of the other country.Once this happens a trade war is around the corner.A trade war in one sector can spill to other sectors in a countrys economy.The effects of trade wars are spread across various sectors of a nation lik e the chart below shows of the trade war between the United States and China. Source: BBCAlso a trade war that begins with just two countries can spill over and start to affect other countries that were not initially involved in the war.The war always spills over to other countries that have allegiances with each of the two warring countries.If for example Country A is involved in a trade war with Country B. The nations that are in alliance or in trade partnership with the two countries may be forced to also take retaliatory steps against the country that is against their ally.If country D is the friend of country A; it can place trade restrictions and tariffs on imports from country B. This chain reaction is usually to show support and solidarity to their allies during the war.The trade war between countries can also make countries to form new trade alliances.If for example, Country A places high tariffs on the products from country B, then country B will be forced to look for another country that it can enter the same trade agreement with either on a long te rm or short term basis.WHAT IS PROTECTIONISM? As stated earlier, protectionist penchant is the major cause of a trade war. You may be wondering what Is protectionism.Protectionism refers to government policies and actions that restrict international trade. The major intention of this is to protect local business and jobs from foreign competition.A lot of arguments have been on as to whether or not protectionism is of any benefit to the people. Critics of protectionism say that even though it is intended to benefit the people, it is detrimental to the people, especially in the long run.For example, a survey was carried out with regards to if Americans believe that China would retaliate to the tariffs imposed by the government and over 74% stated that China would retaliate. They were not wrong. Not only did China retaliate but other countries as well. Source: YouGovThey argue that it can slow down the cultural exchange and economic growth. It also leads to an increase in the price of manufacturing goods domestically.On the other hand, proponents of protectionism are of the opinion that if the policies are well crafted, it provides a competitive advantage and also creates more jobs.Protectionist policies are not just implemented via tariffs, they can also be implemented through by setting clear product standards, placing a cap on import quotas and also implementing government subsidies to deter outsourcing.An example of this is when President Donald Trump of the United States of America embarked on a protectionist campaign in 2017 and 2018 which was geared towards bringing back manufacturing jobs to the United States instead of outsourcing from India and China where the US has been known to outsource from for many decades.This is what has degenerated to the ongoing trade war between China and the United States.DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A TRADE WAR AND SANCTIONSIt is important to note that a trade war is different from other actions like sanctions specifically related to trade that have detrimental effects on the trade relationship between two countries.Such actions may also have other goals like humanitarian goals. They are mostly taken when a country disobeys the rules or regulations of a country concerning import, this disobedience can be in the aspect of the standard of the imported goods or any other regulation that is flouted.Such sanctions should not be mistaken for a trade war. The sanctions are usually justified and the country that is sanctioned knows that it deserves the sanction.In as much as the actions and tariffs that degenerate into a trade war are aimed at improving the economy of a country, if the trade war continues for a long period of time, it can have adverse effects on international trade.To further understand these adverse effects of trade wars, let us consider the implications of a Trade War. IMPLICATIONS OF A TRADE WARAs stated earlier, a trade war can have certain effects on the countries involved and even on the global economy especially if it lingers for too long. Below are some of the implications of a trade war.1. Increased Cost of Goods and ServicesThe tariffs that are placed on goods and services during a trade war can lead to an increase in the price of goods and services and this can affect the economy negatively. High prices from tariffs can hurt firms and consumers in the countries involved.The first prices to rise during the trade war are the goods in the sector with tariffs.Once these prices increase, the prices of other products will follow suit thereby putting the economy in a tight spot.When tariffs are placed on imported goods, the prices of the goods increases because of the tax imposed on them, when the prices of these imported goods increase, the domestic manufacturers who do not pay tariffs begin to charge higher prices for their domestically produc ed goods too.Even though domestic manufacturers make more profit which they can invest in other factories, it has an adverse effect on the consumers.This how in price puts a strain on consumers and companies that buy intermediate products and this can harm the economy.2. Consumer Financial StrainTariffs that target consumer goods can put direct pressure on the finances of the citizens of the countries involved.If the tariff is on intermediate goods and industrial products, it wont affect the citizens as much as tariffs placed on consumer goods.These tariffs on consumer goods also threaten the retail industry by causing an increase in the retail prices to consumers this is due to the fact that retailers wont be able to absorb the cost of the tariff.The high tariffs could mean that suppliers will receive fewer supplies, or consumers will pay more or consumers will buy fewer products or the retail margins will be low or consumers will totally forgo the purchase of the products.Either w ay, the budgets of consumers will be stretched and the shopping bills of consumers will get higher and this will affect the economy.Retaliatory tariff also affects farmers; this is because trade wars also interfere with the plans of the farmers for the future.The escalation of tension during trade wars causes a reduction in the ability of farmers to sell their goods and this causes them to make long term decisions that will affect their farms.3. Global Economic CrisisTrade wars especially can adversely affect the economy of the world.These effects can be felt in three different ways:First, a trade war can lead to a reduction in productivity; this reduction is due to the changes in the allocation of productive resources.Secondly, a Trade War could lead to a rise in the financing cost of capital which is caused by the financial stress the country undergoes during the war.Finally, a trade was can lead to a reduction or drop in investment which is due to the increase in uncertainty or f ear of the future of business conditions. A lot of firms and investors would rather wait and see what happens than invest their money in an unstable economy.If investors start reducing their investments or people start moving their supply chain around, then the economy will be badly hurt.The tariffs during trade wars may look harmless at the initial stage but in the long run, it will lead to laying-off people from their jobs, this will leave people devastated and their hopes and optimism shattered because the hope of getting any meaningful work will be gone.EXAMPLES OF TRADE WARS AND ITS SIGNSSteel Tariffs and the European Union Trade War In March 2018, the President of the United States Donald Trump stated a 10% tariff on aluminum and 25% tariff on all steel imports. Even though Trump further said Trade wars are very easy to win, the markets revealed something else.Stock markets began to fall all around the world, due to the fear of the trade war about to happen between 3 of the wo rlds biggest economies.Although the United States Congress is the only arm of the government given the full legal right to enforce traffics, Donald Trump exercised a special power which was granted to the presidency in 1962 by the Congress.This permitted the curbing of imports by the president when these imports are believed to threaten the security of the nation. And this was the case, as The Commerce Department announced that due to reliance on imported metals, the United States ability to create weapons was threatened.However, the Aerospace Industry Council begged to differ stating that Trumps tariffs would rather multiply costs for exporters and the military.Now, after these moves by the U.S President, 8 nations, 5 of them allied to the United States filed complaints against the country. These countries included Switzerland, Mexico, India, the European Union, Norway, Canada, Russia, and China.China one the major players of the steel industry imposed a $3 billion tariff on all Am erican products in June 2018, which unleashed a circle of retaliation as the chart below shows. Source: Statistaa.) The EU Trade War The American government initially wanted to delay the tariff on all European Union imports for the 1st of June 2018. This was because Donald Trump required the United States ally to take off its 10% tariff on all American autos, as well as setting quotas on all its steel exports.However, on the 31st of May, 2018, the President of the United States said that the tariff would be placed on Mexico, the European Union, and Canada. The American Aluminum Associated announced that this move would cause chaos in the supply chains which over 97% of all aluminum industry jobs in the United States rely on.Germany then proposed to stop the European Union’s 10% tax on all American auto imports. In turn, the U.S must not impose a 25% tax on all auto imports from the EU.However, on the 22nd of June, 2018, the European Union placed tariffs on American products of up to $3.2 billion. These tariffs were directly aimed at imports which would affect the political ba se of Donald Trump, such as orange juice, bourbon, and motorcycles.However, various other sectors were vulnerable to the trade war as seen in the image below. Source: BruegelBoth moves were after 2018, April EU upgrade of its Mexico trade agreement.On the 17th of July, the European Union sealed a trade agreement with Asian giant Japan. This deal ends or reduces tariffs on most products and it became guess largest ever trade agreement, concerning $152 billion products.On the 25th of July, 2018, the European Union and America decided to hold back on all proposed tariffs, revisit the aluminum and steel tariffs and move towards achieving zero tariffs on all non-auto industrial products.The European Union agreed to receive more American soybeans and liquefied natural gas. This would decrease its dependence on the Russian LNG as well as aid American farmers who lost out on the Chinese market as a result of the trade war.However, the price of Russias LNG is a lot less than that of the United States, so its doubtful that much change would happen.What were the Signs? The United States is the largest importer of steel globally, and these tariffs bad ly hurt these companies that employ over 6.4 million workers, in the attempt to shield the 147,000 employees in the United States steel industry.This particular trade war began to raise the cost for all steel users such as automakers. Whats more, the tariffs decreased the second-quarter profits for the top 3 automakers.Now in order to satisfy shareholders, these costs were passed down onto consumers. This means that every product manufactured with steel began to see a rise in cost.b.) RetaliationsThe Prime Minister of Canada Justin Trudeau announced that Canada will retaliate with like tariffs.Mexico as well announced that it will place traffics on United States industries situated in locations that were in support of Donald Trump.These tariffs included pork products, flat steel, and lamps.In another move, Trump said on the 10th of August 2018, that he was going to double tariff on steel and aluminum imports from Turkey.This was done in the move to secure the release of American cle rgyman Andrew Brunson, who Turkey claimed was a part of the 2016 coup to oust the sitting government.This move by the United States reduced the worth of the Turkish lira against the U.S dollar to an all-time low. This trigger fears that the fallen state of the Turkish economy was capable of initiating a fresh crisis in Europe.WHAT WERE THE SIGNS OF RETALIATORY TARIFFS?Some companies in the United States created the Tariffs Hurt the Heartland movement in order to make the government put a stop to the ongoing trade war.Why were they concerned? Well, they were worried about the increase in costs of all imported goods. Furthermore, due to these retaliatory tariffs which were imposed on United States exports by Europe and China, it began to hurt farmers.Whats more, in states like Wisconsin, Indiana and Illinois bankruptcies leaped to their worst level in a decade.What was even more worrisome is the fact that those states in 2017 produced a huge amount of all food in the United States but this wasnt the experience during the trade war.WHAT DO YOU EXPERIENCE AS A CITIZEN OF A COUNTRY CURRENTLY IN A TRADE WAR? In the examples we have seen above, the trade wars hiked the costs of consumer products that utilize aluminum and steel. Furthermore, half of all goods imported by the United States from China are used to create other products.Hence, these tariffs raised their prices, and this forced them to either lay off workers or increase costs. Beer and soda suppliers were the initial producers to increase in cost.Prices have also risen on imported heavy-equipment materials, computer chips, tool makers and clothing hangers.The Automobile Manufacturers Alliance announced that American produced steel would cost more as soon as cheap imports from foreign nations are eliminated. They stated that The move is raising automobile cost for consumers and a having a negative effect on the industrys competitiveness globally.For instance, in Missouri, Mid-Continent Nail announced worker layoffs due to the hike in steel prices and this was rising too high for the company to stay profitable and afloat.Whats more, Harley-Davidson reported that it had plans to move certain productions outside the country to steer clear of retaliatory European tariffs.The lobster industry in Maine also suffered from the retaliatory tariffs on all American seafood. California cheese producers are also witnessing their markets in Mexico and China fade away, as a result of retaliatory tariffs.The American bourbon industry and Wisconsin automobile parts producers are among the industries reaping the effects of the trade war as well. Tariffs have also decreased the United States grain and timber exports based on the reports of The Wall Street Journal.A lot of American imports from China are from the United States. Various raw materials are moved to China to be processed, and then exported back to the United States.For instance, salmon captured in Alaska is exported to China to be processed then exported back to American grocery stores.Now if Trump places tariffs on all seafood imports, the result would be an increase in cost to 50 cents for a pound from the previous 25 cents a pound.The foreign tariffs on all American exports will cause them to be expensive. Hence, United States exporters will have to lay-off workers in order to cut cost and stay competitively priced.If this isnt done, theyll probably run out of business.Over time, trade wars reduce economic growth; create a lot of layoffs, due to the retaliation of foreign nations.So, the 12 million workers in the United States who have jobs related to exports could ultimately lose their jobs.And this could reduce the economic growth of America by 0.4%.Furthermore, in the long run, trade wars do damage to the domestic industry it was trying to protect in the first place.This is because, without competition from foreign countries, home-based industries have no need for innovation.And this would lead to a reduction in the quality of goods in comparison to goods produced by foreign nations.CONCLUSIONAs we have seen from this article, the signs that your country is currently in the midst of a trade war are numerous, such as an increase in imported goods, reduction in the quality of home-based products, and high amount of worker layoffs.The outcomes of trade wars are undesirable for any economy in the long-run as it rarely creates the desired results due to the various retaliations of the countries involved.

Australian And Native American History - 1472 Words

While from two vastly different regions and cultures of the world, Australian and Native American mythologies have more in common than people initially realize. Both span thousands of years of traditional lifestyles, having developed unique folklore in order to preserve their cultures. Australian mythology has a slightly less severe tone, having written their myths in order to record them in the aftermath of colonization, while Native Americans feel a religious reverence for the tales because they view their stories as true accounts. However, while their tones are different, their thematic similarities stretch from their long histories and creation myths to the importance of animals and astronomy. Similar to Australian aboriginals, Native American people have a history that spans hundreds of centuries. Historians and archeologists estimate that the first Native American population, or Paleo-Indians, consisted of â€Å"nomadic hunters from Asia who migrated to the continent probably during the last glacial period (Bastian and Mitchell 6). The dates of the natives’ first appearance in history range from twenty-thousand to sixty-thousand years ago (Bastian and Mitchell 6). Like aboriginals down under, they formed their own separate cultures around the land, developing a â€Å"wide range of small-scale, oral cultures† (WILLIS 220). Native American groups were more distinguishable than Australian tribes, however, each having founded separate and unique characteristics. At the end of theShow MoreRelatedThe Many Languages of Australia and New Zealand1518 Words   |  6 PagesAs of 2013, there are many languages spoken both in Australia and New Zealand. Having a history dating as far as the 18th century, both countries constitute the Austral realm. 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Weir’s Gallipoli is taken from an Australian perspective and presents a compressed narrative of the events that shaped Australian society during World War I. The 20th Century saw the emergence of cinematography as a primary medium. One aspect of cinematography thatRead MoreWorld War I And The United States876 Words   |  4 Pagesdifference between races specifically in brain size. He believed that the Europeans had the best brain capacity especially the English. Next, was the Chinese. Then, came Southeast Asians and Polynesians. Following that, was American Indians. Last was, Africans and Australians. (Science: 1770s-1850s: One Race or Several Species) Also, in the early 1900’s there were different intelligence test conducted mainly to â€Å"justify racial and ethnic discrimination†. According to the understanding race website

Understand Children and Young Peoples Self Directed Play

Freely chosen, self directed play. Refer back to assignment 1. The play cycle A play cycle begins in the pre conscious thoughts of the child, it is at the point of daydream where the playful impulse is created and given out as the play cue. Once this cue is taken up by a responding partner the play cycle begins. The metalude signals the start of the play process and while it supports a single play thought in the Childs consciousness it can change in seconds to become another playful thoughts or an extended version of its original self. The play cue can be given out in many ways, facial expressions, eyes contact, body language or simply through using materials I.e. a ball or a colouring pencil. Looking back through my reflective diary I†¦show more content†¦Loose parts provide a high level of creativity and choice as there are endless possibilities for how they can be played with. In my setting yesterday the children used loose parts such as cardboard boxes, bottle tops and shiny paper to make a robot, the robot then became a bus and later a child’s hideout. Simon Nichols theory of loose parts argues that creativity is not for the gifted, he believes that it is our education and cultural conditions that lead us to believe this .He said that ‘in any environment, both the degree of inventiveness and creativity and the possibility of discovery are directly proportional to the number of loose parts and kind of variables in it.’ You do not have to be a gifted musician to make music, the children and young people at my setting often make there own music, with pots, pans and trays or even banging small sticks on surface areas. Play preferences. Preference for outdoor play. Child A plays mostly outdoors as he believes it is more fun, and loves to investigate the surroundings. The choice of indoor play is often related to the weather, child A only plays inside when its cold or raining. It is only in severe weather conditions children have to stay in doors as in our setting we believe the children can learn and develop much more outside even when the weather is poor. Play preferences are the child’s own choices the freedom opportunities to be able to make those choices by enabling varied resources that areShow MoreRelatedTda 2.16 Support Children and Young People with Play and Leisure749 Words   |  3 PagesTDA 2.16 Support Children and Young People with Play and Leisure 1. Understand the Nature and Importance of Play and Leisure 1.1 Describe the Importance of Play and Leisure for young people Both Play and Leisure are vital components of a childs life as a range of stimulating play and leisure opportunities will support the physical emotional sensory and spiritual and intellectual growth of the child. It helps them to form and sustain relationships and also improves communication, educationalRead MoreUnit Eymp 1 Context and Principles for Early Years Provision Essay1527 Words   |  7 Pages EYMP1 A2: Different approaches Indentify four different approaches to working with children and record these in the table below. Explain how each approach has influenced current early year’s provision in the UK Approaches to working with children and how has this influenced current early years provision in the UK? There are four different approaches to working with children †¢ Reggio Emilia †¢ High/Scope †¢ Montessori †¢ Steiner 1. Reggio Emilia we use Reggio EmiliaRead MoreShould Technology Be Taught 21st Century?1568 Words   |  7 Pageswill willingly agree that digital technologies provide one more outlet for young children to demonstrate their creativity and learning. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of including iPads into the curriculum in a preschool classroom. While some are convinced that introducing iPads into the curriculum means children will stop playing, pretending, and learning to socialize, others believe that children today are digital natives and therefore should be taught 21st Century SkillsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Film The World s Classroom 1727 Words   |  7 Pagesclassroom are Self-directed Learning and The Four Aspects of Engagement. Both of these concepts connect to multiple parts of the classroom including how Claire teaches and student’s ability to learn. While most studies focusing on self-directed learning have been studying adults, more studies are starti ng to be conducted that look at k-12. While this film was done in 2000, it is a perfect example of self-directed learning, and encouragement of engagement, focusing on young children. Through her variousRead MoreChildren s Views On Children And Young People1515 Words   |  7 Pagesand principles which underpin children and young people s play and learning including children s views this means hearing the children s voice, thoughts, view and opinions. Listening to what the children have to say because it may have an effect on the environment which will make it more child like challenging. By having a stimulating environment it will enable the children to explore investigate take risks as well as playing and learning. Children and young people will achieve better if they areRead MoreThe Effects Of Affective Development On Children Essay1457 Words   |  6 PagesAdults play a very important role in the affective development in children. Now more than ever, children are being raised in a very unpredictable world. Adults are now taking on a much greater challenge when working with young children to help set the foundation for affective development. When it comes to the educational side of affective development, teachers are given NAEYC guidelines to help in their decision making. These guidelines are designed to promote competent young children. It isRead MoreSearch Of Self Written By Virginia M. Axline And Published By The Random House Publishing Group940 Words   |  4 PagesThis following nonfiction is Dibs: In Search of Self written by Virginia M. Axline and published by the Random House Publishing Group in America during 1964. The plot revolves around a young 5 year-old boy that is emotionally deprived from his parents and is mentally unstable around other individuals. The little boy would often hide in the corner of the classroom or under tables to avoid human contact, and when someone his age were to approach him, he would try to scratch or kick them. VirginiaRead MoreHow Play Affects The Childs Five Areas Of Development982 Words   |  4 PagesPlay Play is important to children. Play enhances the Childs five areas of development. Play is also an important part of a young Childs day. Young children love to pretend and play make-believe. Fantasy play provides opportunities for growth and development. Play also encourages experimentation and discovery. Toys are tools for play and play is a Childs work. When children play they learn that is why it is important. Play is the most natural and effective environment for a child to learn. DuringRead MorePlay in childhood 1379 Words   |  6 PagesPlay What is play? Play is defined as engaging in activates for enjoyment recreation rather than a serious practical purpose. Playing is a disorganized voluntary spontaneous activity, which may include objects, one’s body, symbol usage, and relationships. Play is flexible, individualize, grouped, motivating, self-directed, open-ended, or self-directed. (Smith, 2013) (Saskatchewan Ministry of Education, 2010) While playing, children are gaining creative skills for creative developmentRead MoreWhat Can We Do About Ageism?925 Words   |  4 Pagestime consuming. I separate the solutions into three parts, First, old people need to face the social problems without fear, being honest about their physical, physiological situations and clear about their own needs, for instance, what they want to learn, what kind of help they need; Next, young people, especially teachers, doctors, family members and friends of older adults can observe their needs and help them to build self-confidences and re-build the social connections; Then, governments can

Journey Assignment Free Essays

|[pic] | | | | | | |Mater Dei Catholic College | | |ASSESSMENT TASK | | | | | |Preliminary English Standard | | |Area of Study Portfolio | |Date Issued: Wk 6 |Date Due: Friday 5. 4. 13 8:45am Wednesday Outside Staff Centre | | |Listening: Lesson 1 Friday 5. We will write a custom essay sample on Journey Assignment or any similar topic only for you Order Now 4. 3 In-Class | |Assignment Weighting: 25% | |Components: 15% Listening and 10% Portfolio | |Outcomes Being Assessed: | | | |2. A student explains relationships among texts. | |3. A student develops language relevant to the study of English. | |4. A student explains and analyses the ways in which language forms and features, and structures of texts shape meaning and influence responses. | |7. A student adapts and synthesises a range of textual features to explore and communicate information, ideas and values for a variety of purposes, | |audiences and contexts. | |Context of the task: In the Area of Study, students explore and examine relationships between language and text, and interrelationships among texts. They | |examine closely the individual qualities of texts while considering the texts’ relationships to the wider context of the Area of Study: Journeys. | |Outline of Task: | | | |Part A: Portfolio | |In your area of study you have been focusing on the concept of Journeys. You are to collect, analyse and present TWO sources which relate to ideas of | |Journeys that have been explored in and are relevant to Raw or Away. Your chosen texts should be sourced from two different mediums. | | | |Presentation: | |Your analysis will be presented on the proforma provided to you by your English teacher and you are not to exceed the total space provided. | |You must use different examples from your set text in each analysis. | | | | | | |Part B: Listening Task | |You will listen to an aural text in class which will have an aspect of Journeys as its focus. You will be required to analyse the extract aurally and | |comment on how meaning is conveyed in this text type and its relationship to Journeys. You will need to be familiar with a range of Journeys concept ideas | |and thesis statements. You will require your laptop and a set of ear buds/phones for the lesson. Obviously your laptop will be charged! | | | |Marking Criteria: | | | |Marks | |Criteria | | | |13-15 | |Skilfully identifies the concept of Journeys in the text. |Demonstrates detailed understanding of how selected text/set text explores the concept of Journeys | |Presents a perceptive analysis of the set and chosen text | |Uses language which is appropriate, sustained, sophisticated and suitable to audience, purpose and form | | | |10-12 | |Clearly identifies the concept of Journeys in the text. |Demonstrates effective understanding of how selected text/set text explores the concept of Journeys | |Effectively analyses the set and chosen text | |Uses language effectively which is appropriate and suitable to audience, purpose and form | | | |7-9 | |Identifies the concept of Journeys in the text. | |Demonstrates satisfactory understanding of how selected text/set text explores the concept of Journeys | |Attempts to explain ideas in the set and chosen text/describes the t exts. |Uses language which is appropriate and suitable to audience, purpose and form | | | |4-6 | |Describes Journeys in the text. | |Demonstrates limited understanding of how selected text/ set text explores concepts of Journeys | |Attempts to describe the selected text and chosen text | |Uses simple language suitable to audience, purpose and form | | | |1-3 | |Demonstrates elementary understanding of Journeys in selected text/ set text |Recount of the texts/ brief response | |Uses simplistic language which is not always suitable to audience, purpose and form | | | | | |Areas of proficiency: | | | | | | | | | |Areas for development: | | | | | | | Journeys: Additional texts summary sheet Title: Refugee Blues Text Type: Poem Composer: WH Auden Published: 1939 Audience: English teacher Outline the text in terms of its broad relationship to the concept of Journeys. This poem explores the concept of journey through sadness and the hardships that are experienced of being a Jew in the wrong place at the wrong time. This couple has lost everything except each other so there is hope for them The couple are determined to find a sense of place and acceptance after locating to a new destination Identify two Journeys thesis statements which are relevant to both your set text and this chosen text. (Use point form) †¢ A journey can involve the search for identity †¢ Journey can often contain obstacles to be met and over come Explain (with reference to technique, relevant eg’s and effect) how each thesis statement is explored in Raw/Away. (2xWHEELS) WH Auden articulates how journeys can often contain obstacles to be met and overcome in his poem Refugee Blues. Auden conveys a disillusioned tone through his use of anaphora. During the time of the war, it is expressed that some civilians were treated as outcasts. This is evident in the first paragraph where he writes ‘Say this city has ten million souls†¦yet there’s no place for us, my dear, yet there’s no place for us. ’ This is further reiterated in the repetition of the phrase ‘we cannot go there now, my dear, we cannot go there now’. The use of anaphora establishes for the reader the belief that the two refugees in this poem have to overcome the obstacle of exclusion as they are not accepted by anyone in the country. The use of repetition in the statement ‘yet there’s no place for us’ and ‘we cannot go there now’ evokes empathy in the audience more so that it would have been without repetition. The reader also feels sympathetic and concerned for the couple with the quote ‘my dear’ and we realize that the two have strong feelings for each other. This is a good thing because they are able to comfort each other. Through the use of anaphora Auden was able to highlight about how journeys can often contain obstacles to be met and overcome in his poem Refugee Blues. The concept of journey can involve a search for identity and this is explored in WH Auden’s poem Refugee Blues. Auden portrays logic of despondent tone through his use of structural devices and figurative language. This is seen in the sentence ‘.. some are living in mansions, some are living in holes:.. ’ and â€Å"if you’ve got no passport you’re officially dead†. The use of juxtaposition and metaphor creates the reader to feel empathy for the refugees and because the poem begins by introducing a city with 10 million people in it, some have the luxury of living in mansions; and this is contrasted with the rest who are living in most disgusting conditions ‘holes’. It’s suggesting that the couple are the lowest of low because there is not even a ‘hole’ for them and they are below the poverty line. WH Auden takes a single main theme and makes variations on it, leading to a particularly powerful finale. The theme of this poem is the abuse of human rights experienced not only by German Jews but by other Jews and by refugees anywhere. Through the use of structural devices and figurative language Auden was successfully able to portray the quest for identity in his poem Refugee Blues. Scott Monk represents the idea of journey involving a search for identity in his novel Raw. Monk highlights a sense of regretful tone through his use of characterisation of Brett Dalton. This is shown in the quotes â€Å"she’s got nothing to do with this! It’s my fault! I’m the one to blame! † and â€Å"He [Brett] felt like he had let him [Sam] down. No one had put up with more from him. He’d been patient so many times. Forgiven him. Let him back to The Farm when he’d run away. He’d always been there regardless of the trouble Brett had caused an all he’d got in return was grief. The use of characterisation establishes the way that Brett has accepted that he was responsible for everything that has happened between him and Caitlin and him and Sam. This shows a lot of maturity from Brett because he is the one taking the guilt. The second quote used demonstrates the influence Sam had over Brett. The fact that Brett feels guilty is significant and demonstrates what he has learnt and how he has been changed because of the institution. Through the use of characterisation Monk was successful on depicting the notion of journey involving a search for identity. Explain (with reference to technique, relevant eg’s and effect) how each thesis statement is explored in your chosen text. (2xWHEELS) How to cite Journey Assignment, Essay examples

Sarah Baartman free essay sample

The Sarah Barman video today had some very shocking mistreatment of African Americans. I dont understand how Europeans could Justify their actions of treating another human being like that. Also to know that people still went to see her pickled remains for almost a century after her death showed that it was more than one person that contributed to this. People thought that African Americans were a different species and werent even human. We can also see this in our society today.I ere up outside the Bronx, and my school was mainly comprised of African American and Hispanic people. My cousins that lived Just outside the city in the suburbs, went schools were the population was 90% white. It is almost like our races still keep us separate even though our society proclaims that were all equal now. The large disparity in the number of other ethnicities located in these areas cannot Just be coincidence. We will write a custom essay sample on Sarah Baartman or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It opened my eyes to see that this stuff still goes on today when I was ender the impression that our society was much better than before.The poem Ghetto Booty also brought up some issues today. Many songs, which I do listen too, objectify a womens body and even degrade the African American community. When I listen to hip hop music, I dont take the lyrics they say literally. We realize that these people Just want to sell their music and you cant do that by rapping about Jesus or something else. Other people are quick to Judge our music and take everything literally.

Exams, Superstitions, and Kit Kat Bars

Exams, Superstitions, and Kit Kat Bars The National Center Test for University Admission is a universal examination for Japanese universities. All national/public universities require applicants to take this exam. During the exam season, the superstitious nature of the Japanese becomes apparent. In fact, you will find various lucky charms being sold around this time. The most popular are charms purchased from a shrine or temple. However, the Kit Kat (a chocolate bar) is also popular. Why? The Japanese pronounce it as kitto  katto. It sounds like kitto katsu which means, You will surely win. Parents often buy Kit Kats for their children for exam days. It is just a fun play on words, but if it makes them feel better, why not? Japanese Translation Ã¥ â€"é ¨â€œÃ£  ¨Ã§ ¸ Ã¨ µ ·Ã§â€° ©Ã£  ¨Ã£â€š ­Ã£Æ'Æ'ãÆ'ˆã‚ «Ã£Æ'Æ'ãÆ'ˆ Ã¥ ¤ §Ã¥ ­ ¦Ã¥â€¦ ¥Ã¨ © ¦Ã£â€š »Ã£Æ' ³Ã£â€š ¿Ã£Æ' ¼Ã¨ © ¦Ã© ¨â€œÃ£ Å'ä »Å Ã¥ ¹ ´Ã£  ¯Ã¦Å"ˆæâ€" ¥Ã£  ¨Ã¦â€" ¥Ã£  «Ã¨ ¡Å'ã‚ Ã£â€šÅ'㠁 ¾Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ£ â€œÃ£â€šÅ'㠁 ¯Ã¦â€" ¥Ã¦Å" ¬Ã£  ®Ã¥ ¤ §Ã¥ ­ ¦Ã£  ®Ã¥â€¦ ±Ã©â‚¬Å¡Ã¥â€¦ ¥Ã¥ ­ ¦Ã¨ © ¦Ã© ¨â€œÃ£  §Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ¥â€º ½Ã¥â€¦ ¬Ã§ «â€¹Ã¥ ¤ §Ã¥ ­ ¦Ã¥ â€"é ¨â€œÃ¨â‚¬â€¦Ã£  «Ã£  ¯Ã£â‚¬ Ã£ â€œÃ£  ®Ã£â€š »Ã£Æ' ³Ã£â€š ¿Ã£Æ' ¼Ã¨ © ¦Ã© ¨â€œÃ£â€šâ€™Ã¥ â€"㠁‘る㠁“㠁 ¨Ã£ Å'ç ¾ ©Ã¥â€¹â„¢Ã£  ¥Ã£ â€˜Ã£â€šâ€°Ã£â€šÅ'㠁 ¦Ã£ â€žÃ£  ¾Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ¦â€" ¥Ã¦Å" ¬Ã¤ º ºÃ£  ¯Ã§ ¸ Ã¨ µ ·Ã£â€šâ€™Ã¦â€¹â€¦Ã£  Ã£ â€œÃ£  ¨Ã£ Å'Ã¥ ¥ ½Ã£  Ã£  ªÃ¥â€º ½Ã¦ °â€˜Ã£  ¨Ã£ â€žÃ£ Ë†Ã£  ¾Ã£ â„¢Ã£ Å'〠Ã¥ â€"é ¨â€œÃ£  ®Ã¦â„¢â€šÃ¦Å"Ÿã  «Ã£  ¯Ã£  Ã£â€šÅ'㠁Å'よ㠁 Ã¨ ¡ ¨Ã£â€šÅ'㠁 ¾Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ¥ ®Å¸Ã©Å¡â€ºÃ£â‚¬ Ã£ â€œÃ£  ®Ã¦â„¢â€šÃ¦Å"Ÿæ §ËœÃ£â‚¬â€¦Ã£  ªÃ§ ¸ Ã¨ µ ·Ã§â€° ©Ã£ Å'Ã¥ £ ²Ã£â€šâ€°Ã£â€šÅ'㠁 ¦Ã£ â€žÃ£â€šâ€¹Ã£  ®Ã£â€šâ€™Ã¨ ¦â€¹Ã£ â€¹Ã£ â€˜Ã£  ¾Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ¦Å"€ã†šâ€šÃ¤ º ºÃ¦ °â€"㠁 ®Ã£ â€šÃ£â€šâ€¹Ã£â€šâ€šÃ£  ®Ã£  ¨Ã£ â€žÃ£ Ë†Ã£  °Ã£â‚¬ Ã§ ¥Å¾Ã§ ¤ ¾Ã£â€šâ€žÃ£ Å Ã¥ ¯ ºÃ£  ®Ã£ Å Ã¥ ®Ë†Ã£â€šÅ Ã£  §Ã£ â„¢Ã£ Å'〠Ã£Æ' Ã£Æ' §Ã£â€š ³Ã£Æ' ¬Ã£Æ' ¼Ã£Æ'ˆè â€œÃ¥ ­ Ã£  §Ã£ â€šÃ£â€šâ€¹Ã£â€š ­Ã£Æ'Æ'ãÆ'ˆã‚ «Ã£Æ'Æ'ãÆ'ˆã‚‚ä º ºÃ¦ °â€"㠁Å'㠁‚る㠁 ®Ã£  §Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ£  ªÃ£ Å"㠁‹ã  £Ã£  ¦Ã¦â€" ¥Ã¦Å" ¬Ã¨ ªÅ¾Ã£  ®Ã§â„¢ ºÃ©Å¸ ³Ã£  ®Ã£â‚¬Å'ã‚ ­Ã£Æ'Æ'ãÆ'ˆã‚ «Ã£Æ'Æ'ãÆ'ˆ(㠁 Ã£  £Ã£  ¨Ã£ â€¹Ã£  £Ã£  ¨)㠁Å'〠Ã£  Ã£  £Ã£  ¨Ã¥â€¹ Ã£  ¤Ã£  Ã£  £Ã£  ¨Ã£ â€¹Ã£  ¤Ã£  ¨Ã¤ ¼ ¼Ã£  ¦Ã£ â€žÃ£â€šâ€¹Ã£ â€¹Ã£â€šâ€°Ã£  §Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ¨ ¦ ªÃ£ Å'Ã¥ â€"é ¨â€œÃ£  ®Ã¦â€" ¥Ã£  «Ã£â‚¬ Ã¥ ­ Ã¤ ¾â€ºÃ£  ®Ã£ Å¸Ã£â€š Ã£  «Ã¨ ² ·Ã£ â€ Ã£ â€œÃ£  ¨Ã£â€šâ€šÃ¥ ¤Å¡Ã£ â€žÃ£  Ã£ â€ Ã£  §Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ£ Å¸Ã£   Ã£  ®Ã¨ ªÅ¾Ã¥â€˜â€šÃ¥ Ë†Ã£â€š Ã£ â€ºÃ£  ¨Ã£â€šâ€šÃ£ â€žÃ£ Ë†Ã£  ¾Ã£ â„¢Ã£ Å'〠Ã£  Ã£â€šÅ'㠁 §Ã¥Å  ¹Ã¦Å¾Å"㠁Å'㠁‚る㠁 ªÃ£â€šâ€°Ã£â‚¬  è © ¦Ã£ â€"㠁 ¦Ã£  ¿Ã£  ªÃ£ â€žÃ¦â€°â€¹Ã£  ¯Ã£ â€šÃ£â€šÅ Ã£  ¾Ã£ â€ºÃ£â€šâ€œÃ£  ­Ã£â‚¬â€š Romaji Translation Daigaku nyuushi sentaa shiken ga kotoshi wa ichi-gatsu juushichi-nichi to juuhachi-nichi ni okonawaremasu. Kore wa nihon no daigaku no kyoutsuu nyuugaku shiken desu. Kokukouritsu daigaku jukensha niwa, kono sentaa shiken o ukeru koto ga gimuzukerarete imasu. Nihonjin wa engi o katsugu koto ga sukina kokumin o iemasu ga, juken no jiki niwa sore ga yoku arawaremasu. Jissai, kono jiki samazamana engimono ga urareteiru no o mikakemasu. Mottomo ninki no aru mono to ieba, jinja ya otera no omamori desu ga, chokoreeto gashi de aru kittokatto mo ninki ga aru no desu. Nazeka tte? Nihongo no hatsuon no kitto katto ga kitto katsu to nite iru kara desu. Oya ga juken no hi ni, kodomo no tame ni kau koto mo ooi sou desu. Tada no goro awase tomo iemasu ga, sorede kouka ga aru nara, tameshite minai te wa arimasen ne. Note: The translation is not always literal. Beginners Phrases Parents often buy KitKats for their children for exam days. Oyaga juken no hi ni, kodomo no tameni kau koto mo ooi sou desu.㠁Šã‚„㠁Å' 㠁˜ã‚…㠁‘ん㠁 ®Ã£  ²Ã£  «Ã£â‚¬ Ã£ â€œÃ£  ©Ã£â€šâ€šÃ£  ®Ã£ Å¸Ã£â€š Ã£  « 㠁‹ã â€ Ã£ â€œÃ£  ¨Ã£â€šâ€š 㠁Šã Å Ã£ â€žÃ£  Ã£ â€ Ã£  §Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€šÃ¨ ¦ ªÃ£ Å'Ã¥ â€"é ¨â€œÃ£  ®Ã¦â€" ¥Ã£  «Ã£â‚¬ Ã¥ ­ Ã¤ ¾â€ºÃ£  ®Ã£ Å¸Ã£â€š Ã£  «Ã¨ ² ·Ã£ â€ Ã£ â€œÃ£  ¨Ã£â€šâ€šÃ¥ ¤Å¡Ã£ â€žÃ£  Ã£ â€ Ã£  §Ã£ â„¢Ã£â‚¬â€š Learn More Learn more about lucky number in Japanese.

Start Writing that Essay and See It to Completion!

Start Writing that Essay and See It to Completion! Start Writing that Essay and See It to Completion! Writing skills are a necessity in school and most people’s everyday life. If you worry about writing, have a tendency to procrastinate, or are fearful about the assignment, here are some tips to help you start writing a strong essay and finish it by deadline. #1 Set a STRICT final deadline. Deadlines are important because they compel a writer to get the work in small chunks, within a manageable time frame. If you find that you have difficulty holding yourself accountable, set computer calendar reminders and ask a friend, parent, or someone else to remind you of your goals. Set extra reminders as the final due date approaches. #2 Set a daily quota. This will help you reach your deadline and (as mentioned in item #1) break the writing task into easier, more manageable tasks. #3 Write every day. Writing every day will help you develop the habit of thinking I get to write today, instead of â€Å"I have to write today.† (And, if that mental shift doesn’t happen, at least it will be a routine that compels you to get the job done.) #4 Shut off electronic devices and find a place to write comfortably. Rid yourself of all distractions which and become more focused on writing an essay that will catches the readers attention. #5 Visualize the finished piece. Be specific in your thought process and visualize exactly what your perfect essay can (and will) look like. Have your essays proofread by someone qualified to give appropriate feedback and edits. Our team of writing professionals at are ready to assist you. Talk to us at 1-800-573-0840.

Max Weber on Democracy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Max Weber on Democracy - Essay Example This is likely one of the reasons why Weber's outlook was so negative upon democracy. Weber felt that since sociologists are human beings possessed with the capability of having empathy and understanding for others, that social actions should be analyzed accordingly. Weber, unlike Marx and Durkheim really focused on the individual and not society as a whole. He focused on status, individual ideas, social class and religion in evaluating their impact on democracy. Weber felt that each of these facets had an individual and equally compelling effect upon the individual and therefore their perceived place in a democratic society. Weber did not believe in the notion of elections or of positional changing. He instead advocated that all elected officials should instead be lifetime appointments. There is a bit of a disparity here because it ultimately results in a single election for a lifetime appointment and the gravamen of American democracy is term limits. It is the term limits which stop the country from becoming a hierarchy and which allows for the continued growth of the country. Weber advocated the type of hierarchy that one would see in a college, university or Fortune 500 company. Any person who receives the lifetime appointment must have the proper credentials which of course required a certificate program of some sort. Thus, under his proposed, democracy would be a well oiled lifetime administrative machine. The problem with his thinking is that it completely flies in the face of the American definition of democracy especially as applied to term limits. Weber did not approve of democracy mainly because he found the democracy of Germany to be petty. He did not feel that a democracy could be successful in a country with a tremendous bureaucracy. The notions flew in each other's faces, however if the country was one that was run like an administrative university, perhaps he would have more open to the idea of democracy. Parson was fascinated by the notion of Citizenship. (Kivisto 68) By way of example, he wrote about the idea of African Americans enjoying the rights of full citizenship. Parson was particularly influenced by Marshall's three dimension application towards democracy. Marshall regarded the three dimensions as the civil, political and social. The process was regarded by Marshall as an evolutionary one, which for the most part Parson adopted, however as to the social dimension, unlike Marshall, Parson applied that dimension to Roosevelt's "New Deal". (Kivisto 68) In a complete break from his mentor Weber, Parsons felt that the future of democracy was bleak if not unattainable, Parsons' predictions for the future of African Americans was sunny. (Kivisto 69) Weber, however, felt that the prospects for democracy in Germany were dim. Parsons felt that America was the last word in modern society and opined that complete citizenship would occur when African Americans (and other similarly situated minorities) were granted the same rights as whites. At such time, Parsons predicted that democratic citizenship would be complete. (Kivisto 69). Sources Cuff, E. C., W. W. Sharrock and D. W. Francis, Perspectives in Sociology, third edition, London, Routledge, 1992. HM66 P36 1984. Gerth, Hans and C. Wright

Biblical Exegetical paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Biblical Exegetical paper - Essay Example Admittedly, Israel in this context is accused of disobedience to God. Before probing further, I would like to shed light on two commentaries on Micah 6:8 to know how this verse is understood widely. To begin with, Barnes on his commentary on Micah says that the prophet through the 6:8 versus tells the people ‘what thing is good; the inward man of the heart righteousness, love, humility’. This is a question from them â€Å"with what outward thing shall I come before the lord†. What the lord requires is an earnest search within. God seeks you, your heart and your spirit rather than yours, your substances and ram or goat. To seek mercy and love there requires righteous judgment. It is not right if you praise yourself and accuse god for evil in you. It refers to the duty of the man too. As god himself humbled in flesh we need to humble ourselves with God, walk on with him. Matthew 5:48 says be ye perfect as your father which is in heaven is perfect. Be merciful as you r father also is merciful. God is not pleased when they offer creatures ‘blood that cannot take away their sin; and instead they themselves become sinful. In the sight of the lord no man living in this world are righteous. No human can wipe away sins that there is nothing that can wash away the stains of offences. It reveals the helplessness of people that they are not at all able to please god by their own abilities except with the help of god. As we are ignorant about what to do to get our sins forgiven, being hesitated we ask, where and how shall I come before the lord. The obedience to god by the people, especially the Pharisees went single dimensional. They lacked the true meaning of it. It was evidential in their Sabbath practices, their offerings and their interpretation of the law and so on. The blood of the animal cannot compensate our sin but that of us. And Barnes continues that even though we dedicate ourselves with all we have, they are not a repayment for our sin s; only the blood of Christ can cleanse our hearts. Micah adds nothing new to the law but only repeating what is in the law. Micah reveals to the people about their half service to God and that is contrary to the law of God. Micah changes the way people looked at and observed the words of Moses to expose unforgivable sins of Israel. According to Barnes, Micah includes nothing more to the law when he prophesies. He just reminds the people who are doing countless rituals and meaningless practices to please God. God being kind towards his people again asks them to pay attention to the same thing that he had been telling through his prophets before. But on the other hand, Matthew Henry in his commentary looks at the verses of Micah with a different perspective. According to him, the people had been trying hard to please God whenever they were warned by God about their ingratitude towards Him. ‘Where with shall I come’ signifies the inner cry of everyone. People still believ e that there is a God who saved them from slavery and who guided them. First of all they seek to come before God and they also want pay homage to him. Further they inquire what the Lord will be pleased with. Like Barnes Matthew Henry also focuses further on the three requirements that God expects from us. Firstly we must do things justly in our daily life and we must be righteous. Secondly, as God does, love to be merciful. Thirdly, the most important is to walk humbly

Ethical Theory of Hedonism

Ethical Theory of Hedonism According to many scholars, to live ethically means to thinks about things that are beyond ones personal interests. When one thinks and lives ethically he or she becomes a just human being with needs and desires of his own but still living among people who also have their needs and desires. Ethics is branch of philosophy that deals with the study of right and wrong questions and therefore helps us to make the right moral judgments in the events of our daily life. This excerpt aims at discussing normative and applied ethics and in particular hedonism and its application in the criminal justice system. The modification of hedonism as a theory in ethics engrosses a number of amazing and important decisions. In this excerpt therefore two types of hedonism are also discussed. Introduction Both the criminal justice system professionals and the general public are concerned with the application of ethics in our daily lives. Everybody would like to see all the public servants and all people in the world perform their duties in the best way possible. In understanding the peoples behavior the criminal justice system uses number of ethical theories where hedonism is one of them. According to Banks (2009), hedonism has been traditionally expressed as the notion that pleasure alone is intrinsically good (p.333). In his explanations banks says that the only thing that is worth seeking just for its own sake is pleasure and that pleasure is the good. Hedonism is therefore the doctrine that pleasure is the sole good. Hedonism was first explained by Epicurus who was a great philosopher from Greek. In the English form Epicurus name appears as epicure, which means a person whose main enjoyment and satisfaction is gotten from exotic and carefully made food and wine. Epicurus advocated for the moderate and yet pleasurable living where he stated that pleasure is the good for which all human beings aim. On the other hand the pursuit of pleasure can also result to pain for instance when a person drinks to excess in his or her pursuit for pleasure and suffers stomachaches and headaches. Pain is mostly good as a means since its usually a signal that something is not right and that a change is necessary. Therefore according to the views of Epicurus the best way for one to live is to live in a pleasant manner and at the same time suffer not any of the unwanted effects of pleasant living. According to Banks (2009), the main aim of human living is tranquility of the mind and the health of the body. He did not recommend a life of endless pleasure or sensuality since by pleasure it means the absence of pain on the body as well as the absence of problem in the soul. However certain pleasures like making fun of others or taking drugs are a means of something painful and therefore would not be good. Tranquility of the mind is attained through practical wisdom and philosophical understanding. Hedonism appears in two forms which are ethical hedonism and psychological hedonism. Psychological hedonism states that human beings pursue pleasure and only pleasure in their lives and that all their activities are aimed towards attaining pleasure as well as avoiding pain (Banks 2009 p.334). Ethical hedonism on the other hand states that not only do human beings seek pleasure but they are actually supposed to seek pleasure because pleasure alone is good. In psychological hedonism all actions are motivated or driven by the search for pleasure while the ethical hedonism goes a step further and views the pursuit for pleasure as being normative. However, in its both forms hedonism is criticized by many scholars for trying to give only a single explanation for all human acts. According to Tuner (2000), pleasure is not the only thing that is desirable. Many other things like peace, money, education and liberty are desirable as means and ends but in hedonism pleasure is desirable as the eventual end. In this study we also find that human beings get pleasure in different ways. Pleasure can also be the same even when the sources of pleasure are the same. The hedonists believe that moral goodness is actually an instrumental good and not necessarily an intrinsic good. Moral goodness means doing the right thing even when it does not lead to happiness. According to hedonism, moral goodness can be an instrumental good though it does not always mean that it will result to pleasure (Larry, 2009) The idea of pleasure and happiness being a measure of ethical morality is basically limited to the western philosophy. Many people have promoted the hedonistic belief in pleasure from Aristotle and Socrates to John Mill and Jeremy Bentham as well as to others in the contemporary times. According to the proponents of hedonism all human beings are selfish by nature. These supporters argue people do good or bad to others so as to acquire a certain intrinsic pleasure (Everett 2006 p. 36). This pleasure may be overtime, in the immediate future or may even cause them pain in the immediate sense and eventually cause them pleasure. In this sense its believed that people help others because helping others gives them pleasure. Similarly people do evil because doing evil gives them pleasure. The criminal justice system therefore uses the theory of hedonism to understand the behavior of criminals and what drives them into committing crimes (Turner). This way the criminal justice system is able to give the right punishments to these law offenders. People have different ways of walking, thinking or acting. When one begins to know an individual there begins to emerge a pattern in train of thoughts. These behavioral patterns and traits are usually studied by the behavioral scientist. For instance the law enforcement uses such behavioral studies to monitor dangerous criminals like serial killers (Axelrod Antinozzi 2002 p.22). Deep inside the mind of criminals there is psychological reasoning behind the actions that they commit. A criminal will therefore leave a signature or a pattern behind which helps the investigators of the crime scene in analyzing information regarding the crime. Classical criminologists view human beings as rational and capable of making free choices. In a well organized society that has rational system of criminal justice therefore, any crime should be defined as the product of an irrational decision. According to Axelrod Antinozzi (2002), all behavior is reduced to avoidance of pain and seeking of pleasure. The main question of the criminal justice system is therefore how to make crime less pleasurable and more painful to the criminals (p.26). From the perspective of those intending to commit a crime, the pain involved should be more painful than breaking the law is worth. Only by making the punishment this way will the Criminal Justice System be able to discourage criminals and those intending to be criminals from indulging into crime. Otherwise if the pain gotten from committing a crime is equal or worth the pleasure derived from the committing it then many would go on committing the crime. The end punishment should always be meant to p revent the criminal from doing further harm to the society after refrain others from committing similar offences. The criminal justice system should therefore be able to choose punishments that will a strong and lasting impression on the mind of the criminal.

The Underwriting Challenges Facing P.S.V. Insurers in Kenya

Rational Choice Theory: An Overview by Steven L. Green Professor of Economics and Statistics Chair, Department of Economics Baylor University Prepared for the Baylor University Faculty Development Seminar on Rational Choice Theory May 2002  © 2002, Steven L. Green It has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all the others that have been tried. -Winston ChurchillIt seems easy to accept that rationality involves many features that cannot be summarized in terms of some straightforward formula, such as binary consistency. But this recognition does not immediately lead to alternative characterizations that might be regarded as satisfactory, even though the inadequacies of the traditional assumptions of rational behaviour standardly used in economic theory have become hard to deny. It will not be an easy task to find replacements for the standard assumptions of rational behaviour †¦ hat can be found in the traditional economic literature, both because the identified deficiencies have been seen as calling for rather divergent remedies, and also because there is little hope of finding an alternative assumption structure that will be as simple and usable as the traditional assumptions of self-interest maximization, or of consistency of choice. – Amartya Sen (1990, p. 206) 1. Introduction Rational Choice Theory is an approach used by social scientists to understand human behavior.The approach has long been the dominant paradigm in economics, but in recent decades it has become more widely used in other disciplines such as Sociology, Political Science, and Anthropology. This spread of the rational choice approach beyond conventional economic issues is discussed by Becker (1976), Radnitzky and Bernholz (1987), Hogarth and Reder (1987), Swedberg (1990), and Green and Shapiro (1996). The main purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of rational choice theory for the non-specialist.I first outline the basic assumptions of the ra tional choice approach, then I provide several examples of its use. I have chosen my examples to illustrate how widely the rational choice method has been applied. In the paper I also discuss some ideas as to why the rational choice approach has become more prevalent in many disciplines in recent years. One idea is that the rational choice approach tends to provide opportunities for the novel confirmation of theories. I argue that these opportunities are the result primarily of the mathematical nature of the approach.I then consider several issues raised by rational choice theory. First, I compare the limited meaning of â€Å"rationality† in rational choice theory with the more general definitions of the term use by philosophers. Second, I describe some of the main criticisms that have been levied against the rational choice approach. Third, I consider the limitations of rational choice models as guides to public policy. Fourth, I review some Christian perspectives on the rat ional choice appraoch.I end the paper by outlining three sets of questions I would like us to discuss in the faculty development seminar. Before I proceed, an apology and a caveat are in order. I apologize for the length of this paper. The British publisher Lord Beaverbrook once apologized to a friend for sending a five- page letter, saying he did not have time to write a one-page letter. I have the same sentiment here. The caveat is that my discussion of the rational choice theory in this paper is necessarily simplistic, so the reader should not take it as definitive.If some element of the theory seems suspect in some way, there will nearly always be an advanced version of the theory published somewhere that is more subtle and nuanced. Most statements in this paper are subject to qualification along many lines, so the reader should view what I present here keeping in mind the goal of the paper, which is only to give the reader some sense of the overall flavor of the rational choice approach. 2. Basic Assumptions about Choice DeterminationRational Choice Theory generally begins with consideration of the choice behavior of one or more individual decision-making units – which in basic economics are most often consumers and/or firms. The rational choice theorist often presumes that the individual decision-making unit in question is â€Å"typical† or â€Å"representative† of some larger group such as buyers or sellers in a particular market. Once individual behavior is established, the analysis generally moves on to examine how individual choices interact to produce outcomes.A rational choice analysis of the market for fresh tomatoes, for example, would generally involve a description of (i) the desired purchases of tomatoes by buyers, (ii) the desired production and sales of tomatoes by sellers, and (iii) how these desired purchases and desired sales interact to determine the price and quantity sold of tomatoes in the market. The typical toma to buyer is faced with the problem of how much of his income (or more narrowly, his food budget) to spend on tomatoes as opposed to some other good or service.The typical tomato seller is faced with the problem of how many tomatoes to produce and what price to charge for them. Exactly how does the buyer choose how much of his income to spend on tomatoes? Exactly how does the seller choose how many tomatoes to produce and what price to charge? One could imagine a number of answers to these questions. They might choose based on custom or habit, with current decisions simply a continuation of what has been done (for whatever reason) in the past. The decisions might be made randomly.In contrast, the rational choice approach to this problem is based on the fundamental premise that the choices made by buyers and sellers are the choices that best help them achieve their objectives, given all relevant factors that are beyond their control. The basic idea behind rational choice theory is tha t people do their best under prevailing circumstances. What is meant, exactly, by â€Å"best achieve their objectives† and â€Å"do their best? † The discussion in this section will emphasize the choices of consumers. 1] The rational choice theory of consumer behavior is based on the following axioms regarding consumer preferences:[2] 1) The consumer faces a known set of alternative choices. 2) For any pair of alternatives (A and B, say), the consumer either prefers A to B, prefers B to A, or is indifferent between A and B. This is the axiom of completeness. 3) These preferences are transitive. That is, if a consumer prefers A to B and B to C, then she necessarily prefers A to C. If she is indifferent between A and B, and indifferent between B and C, then she is necessarily indifferent between A and C. ) The consumer will choose the most preferred alternative. [3] If the consumer is indifferent between two or more alternatives that are preferred to all others, he or sh e will choose one of those alternatives — with the specific choice from among them remaining indeterminate. When economists speak of â€Å"rational† behavior, they usually mean only behavior that is in accord with the above axioms. I consider the definition of â€Å"rationality† in more detail near the end of the paper below. Rational choice theories usually represent preferences with a utility function.This is a mathematical function that assigns a numerical value to each possible alternative facing the decision maker. As a simple example, suppose a consumer purchases two goods. Let x denote the number of units of good 1 consumed and y denote the number of units of good 2 consumed. The consumer’s utility function is given by U = U(x,y), where the function U( ·, ·) assigns a number (â€Å"utility†) to any given set of values for x and y. [4] The properties of a large number of specific function forms for U( ·, ·) have been considered. 5] Th e analysis is by no means restricted to two goods, though in many cases the analyst finds it convenient to assume that x is the good of interest is and y is a â€Å"composite good† representing consumption of everything but good x. The function U( ·, ·) is normally assumed to have certain properties. First, it is generally assumed that more is preferred to less – so that U rises with increases in x and with increases in y. Another way of saying this is to say that marginal utility is positive – where the term â€Å"marginal utility† is the change in utility associated with a small increase in the quantity of a good consumed.The second property of U( ·, ·) is that of diminishing marginal utility, which means that the (positive) marginal utility of each good gets smaller and smaller the more of the good that is being consumed in the first place. One’s first Dr. Pepper after a workout yields quite a lot of satisfaction. By the fifth or sixth, the additional satisfaction, while still positive, is much smaller. An important result in consumer theory is that a preference relationship can be represented by a utility function only if the relationship satisfies completeness and transitivity.The converse (that any complete and transitive preference relation may be represented by a utility function) is also true provided that the number of alternative choices is finite. [Mas-Collel, Whinston, and Green (1995, p. 9)] If the number of possible alternative choices is infinite, it may not be possible to represent the preference relation with a utility function. Rational choice analysis generally begins with the premise that some agent, or group of agents, is [are] maximizing utility – that is, choosing the preferred alternative. This is only part of the story, however.Another important element of the choice process is the presence of constraints. The presence of constraints makes choice necessary, and one virtue of rational c hoice theory is that it makes the trade-offs between alternative choices very explicit. A typical constraint in a simple one-period consumer choice problem is the budget constraint, which says that the consumer cannot spend more than her income. Multi-period models allow for borrowing, but in that case the constraint is that the consumer must be able to repay the loan in the future.The use of utility functions means the idea of agents making the preferred choices from among available alternatives is translated into a mathematical exercise in constrained optimization. That is, an agent is assumed to make the feasible choice (feasible in a sense that it is not prohibited by constraints) that results in the highest possible value of his or her utility function. Constrained optimization methods (based on either calculus or set theory) are well developed in mathematics. The solution to the constrained optimization problem generally leads to a decision rule.The decision rule shows how uti lity-maximizing choices vary with changes in circumstances such as changes in income or in the prices of goods. A third element of rational choice analysis involves assumptions about the environment in which choices are made. Simple economic models are often restricted to choices made in markets, with emphasis on how much of each good or service consumers want to purchase (or firms want to produce and sell) under any given set of circumstances. A fourth element of rational choice analysis is a discussion of how the choices of different agents are made consistent with one another.A situation with consistent choices in which each agent is optimizing subject to constraints is called equilibrium. In the fresh tomato market, for example, the choices of buyers and sellers are consistent if the quantity of tomatoes consumers want to purchase at the prevailing price is equal to the quantity that firms want to produce and sell at that price. In this as in other simple market models, price pl ays a key role in the establishment of equilibrium. If consumers want to purchase more than firms are producing, the price will be bid upward, which will induce more production by firms and reduce desired purchases by consumers.If consumers want to purchase less than firms are producing, the resulting glut will force prices down, which will reduce production by firms and increase purchases by consumers. Fifth and last, in the absence of strong reasons to do otherwise such as the imposition of price controls by the government, the analyst employing rational choice theory will generally assume that equilibrium outcomes in the model are adequate representations of what actually happens in the real world.This means, in the above example, that a rational choice theorist would explain changes in the actual price of tomatoes observed in the real world by looking for possible causes of changes in the equilibrium price of tomatoes in her model. Extensions The basic rational choice theory des cribed above has been extended in a number of ways. I will consider four important ones in this section, though there are of course many others. First, the basic theory accounts only for choice at a given time – that is, the model is static.In contrast, a dynamic (or intertemporal) model allows the agent to plan for the future as well as make choices in the present. In a dynamic model, the agent is still assumed to maximize utility, but the concept of utility is generalized to include not only present satisfaction but also future satisfaction. The agent does not just make choices today – he makes a plan for current and future choices. In this case, it may well be â€Å"rational† to sacrifice (e. g. , consume less or work more) today in order to obtain some better outcome tomorrow. The dynamic formulation is an essential element of theories of saving and investment.One issue that arises in dynamic models is that of discounting. In most dynamic models, the agents under consideration are assumed to prefer (other things equal) a given level of consumption in the present to a given level of consumption in the future. Consider a model with two periods, 1 and 2. Let U1 denote the agent’s utility in period 1 and U2 denote utility in period 2. (U1 and U2 can depend on a number of factors, some of which can be controlled by the agent. ) The agent would then be assumed to formulate a plan for periods 1 and 2 to maximize the sum V = U1 + ?  ·U2, where 0 < ? < 1 is the â€Å"discount factor. [6] A specification of ? < 1 means that a given utility is worth less to the agent in the future than in the present, and is denoted a â€Å"positive rate of time preference† or simply â€Å"time preference. † A justification for time preference is given by Olson and Bailey (1981). Elster (1984, pp. 66ff) summarizes the opposing view that â€Å"†¦ for an individual the very fact of having time preferences, over and above what is justif ied by the fact that we are mortal, is irrational and perhaps immoral as well. † In any case, dynamic models with positive time preference are pervasive in the rational choice literature.The basic rational choice model assumes all outcomes are known with certainty. A second extension of the basic model involves explicit treatment of uncertainty. This is important in rational choice models of crime, for example, where a rational agent is assumed to consider the chance he or she will be apprehended while committing a criminal act. The rational choice model is extended to allow for uncertainty by assuming the agent maximizes expected utility. Uncertainty is characterized by a probability distribution that assigns a likelihood (probability) to each possible outcome.Suppose there are two possible outcomes (for example, the prospective criminal is apprehended while committing a crime, or not apprehended while committing the crime), which we can denote outcome A and outcome B. Let pA denote the probability that outcome A will occur pB denote the probability of outcome B. With these as the only possible outcomes, it is clear that pA + pB = 1 — that is, there is a 100% chance that either A or B will occur. Let U(A) be the agent’s utility with outcome A and U(B) be the agent’s utility with outcome B.The agent is then assumed to maximize expected utility, which is the sum of utility in each outcome weighted by the probability that outcome will occur: V = pA ·U(A) + pB ·U(B). In general, the choices of the agent can affect pA and pB as well as U(A) and U(B). A related (and third) area in which the rational choice model is extended involves incomplete information. In the basic model described above, the agent knows perfectly all the qualities of the goods under her consideration. More generally, an agent may have to make choices when she does not have full information.A university generally does not have full information about the future rese arch productivity of a new assistant professor, for example, and a used car buyer cannot be certain that he is not driving a â€Å"lemon† off the lot. The fourth area in which the basic rational choice model is extended involves strategic behavior. This generally occurs in situations in which there are only a few agents. The key issue is that each agent must take into account the likely effect of his actions on the decisions of other agents, all of whom are looking at the situation the same way.A classic ongoing example of this kind of interaction involves the crude-oil production decisions of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Acting collectively, OPEC members have an incentive to restrict production to keep the world price of crude-oil high. Thus each OPEC country is given a production quota – a limit on the amount it can produce. Each country acting individually, however, has an incentive to â€Å"cheat† on its quota and thereby be able to sell more crude-oil at the high price. This will only be successful if the other countries maintain their quotas, however, thereby keeping the price high.Thus when a country is contemplating the breach of a quota, it must consider how other member countries may react. The branch of economics that deals with strategic interactions is called game theory. [7] 3. A Brief Description of the Rational Choice Method Like most scholarship, rational choice analysis usually begins with a question. What determines church attendance? Are suicide rates affected by the state of the economy? Do seat belt laws make highways safer? Under what circumstances are â€Å"cold turkey† methods necessary to end addictions?Why are drivers of certain minority groups more likely to be pulled over by police? Which soldiers are most likely to suffer casualties in a war? Why can’t Yasser Arafat and Ariel Sharon just get along? Why did large mammals become extinct in the Pelistocene era? When are workers most likely to â€Å"shirk† their job responsibilities? Does a reported decline in â€Å"consumer confidence† portend a slowdown in the economy? Varian (1997, p. 4) describes the model-building process as follows: †¦ all economic models are pretty much the same. There are some economic agents. They make choices in order to advance their objectives.The choices have to satisfy various constraints so there’s something that adjusts to make all these choices consistent. This basic structure suggests a plan of attack: Who are the people making choices? What are the constraints they face? How do they interact? What adjusts if the choices aren’t mutually consistent? I will provide a slightly more detailed description here. Rational choice analysis may be characterized as working through the following steps: 1) Identify the relevant agents and make assumptions about their objectives. 2) Identify the constraints faced by each agent. ) Determine the â⠂¬Å"decision rules† of each agent, which characterize how an agent’s choices respond to changes of one kind or another – for example, how the quantity of tomatoes purchased might change with price or income. This task is usually accomplished mathematically by the solution of a constrained optimization problem. 4) Determine how the decision rules of various agents may be made consistent with one another and thereby characterize the equilibrium of the model. [8] Effective analysis of complex interactions between agents normally involves the use of mathematical methods, which can sometimes be quite sophisticated. ) Explore how the equilibrium of the model changes in response to various external events. That is, determine the predictions or implications of the model. Again, this step can involve substantial use of mathematics. 6) Examine whether the predictions determined in step (5) are consistent with actual experience. This step often involves the statistical anal ysis of data and can involve sophisticated techniques (to control sample selection bias, for example). 7) Draw conclusions and any implications (for government policy, for example) implied by (6).It is often the case that the question at hand may be addressed by reference to standard theoretical results (e. g. , people generally want to consume less of a product when its price increases). In these circumstances the analyst often will not specify and solve a rational choice model explicitly. Instead, she will assume the reader understands that the model could be specified and solved if necessary and would have conventional implications. A. Preference Specification In rational choice theory behavior follows from the pursuit of objectives, so preference specification is crucial.Frank (1997, p. 18) describes two general approaches. The self-interest standard of rationality â€Å"says rational people consider only costs and benefits that accrue directly to themselves. † The presen t-aim standard of rationality â€Å"says rational people act efficiently in pursuit of whatever objectives they hold at the moment of choice. † Frank contends that neither approach is obviously satisfactory. Many people would seem to care about more than their own material well-being, so the selfish egoism implied by self-interest standard is probably too narrow.In contrast, the present-aim standard puts no restrictions at all on preference formation, which means that anything can be explained by an appeal to preferences. Again quoting Frank (1997, p. 18): Suppose, for example, that we see someone drink a gallon of used crankcase oil and keel over dead. The present-aim approach can â€Å"explain† this behavior by saying that the person must have really liked crankcase oil. The main strength of the self-interest standard is that the associated preference specifications are generally straightforward.This approach, which dominates basic economic theory, usually assumes th at utility depends only on the consumption of material goods and services and that, for any given good or service, more is strictly preferred to less. Bergstrom (forthcoming) presents an analysis based on evolutionary considerations showing circumstances under which selfish behavior will become dominant. The present-aim standard has also been used in rational choice models, but its use is nowhere near as prevalent as use of the self-interest standard. The reasons are threefold.First, the self-interest standard has often been successful in the sense of yielding predictions that are consistent with experience. Second, there is no compelling way to specify preferences when the only criterion is â€Å"more than self-interest matters. † (People may care about others, but are teh jealous or altruistic? ) Third, self-interest standard models are more tractable analytically and are more prone than present-aim models to imply specific observable predictions. In particular, models in w hich agents care about each other in some way are prone to have multiple equilibria (sometimes an infinity of equilibria).Frank (1987) makes an evolutionary argument that preferences should include concerns for others. Bergstrom (1999) explores some possible solutions to the â€Å"multiple equilibrium† problem. B. Theory Revision It many instances step (6) will find that one or more of the predictions of a model are not borne out by the data. In these cases, the typical rational choice theorist will not even consider abandoning the assumption of utility maximization. Instead, she will conclude that she must have missed something about constraints or preferences and attempt to revise her theory accordingly.This issue of theory revision is very tricky, and space limitations (not to mention by limited understanding) permit only a brief discussion here. Suppose a theory T has prediction P, when in fact available data indicate the opposite (not P, or ~P). The theory might then be revised in some way to become theory T’, where T’ predicts ~P rather than P. My impression is that most economists would much rather change assumptions about constraints rather than change assumptions about preferences. 9] This viewpoint reflects a desire to avoid meaningless tautologies such as â€Å"he consumed more tomatoes because his preferences changed in such a way that he wanted to consume more tomatoes. † One can explain any choice in this way. Hausman (1984) summarizes the thinking of Lakatos (1970) as follows: A modification of a theory is an improvement if it is not ad hoc. Modifications may be ad hoc in three ways. First of all, a modification of a theory may have no new testable implications at all. Lakatos regards such modifications as completely empty and unscientific.Modifications that are not ad hoc in this sense are â€Å"theoretically progressive. † It may be, however, that the testable implications of the theoretically progressive mod ifications are not confirmed by experiments or observations. In that case modifications are theoretically progressive but not empirically progressive. They are ad hoc in the second sense. An extended process of theory modification is progressive overall if the modifications are uniformly theoretically progressive and intermittently empirically progressive.As one is modifying one’s theory in the hope of improving it, modifications must always have new testable implications, and those testable implications must sometimes be borne out by experience. But one crucial feature of science has been left out. Throughout this history of repeated modifications, there must be some element of continuity. No theoretical progress in economics is made if I modify monetary by theory by adding to it the claim that copper conducts electricity. The expanded theory has testable (and confirmed) implications, but something arbitrary has simply been tacked on.Such a modification is ad hoc in the thir d sense. One needs to recognize the role of something like a Kuhnian â€Å"paradigm. † Modifications of theories must be made in the â€Å"right† way. (p. 23) I believe that most rational choice theorists would adhere to these criteria for effective theory modification. As Stigler and Becker (1977) note: What we assert is not that we are clever enough to make illuminating applications of utility-maximizing theory to all important phenomena – not even our entire generation of economists is clever enough to do that.Rather, we assert that this traditional approach of the economist offers guidance in tackling these problems – and that no other approach of remotely comparable generality and power is available. (pp. 76-7) †¦. We also claim †¦ that no significant behavior has been illuminated by assumptions of differences in tastes. Instead, they, along with assumptions of unstable tastes, have been a convenient crutch to lean on when the analysis has bogged down. They give the appearance of considered judgement (sic), yet really have only been ad hoc arguments that disguise analytical failures. p. 89) In any case, one can change assumptions about preferences only if the new assumptions not only fix the failure of the previous model (that is, they imply ~P rather than P) but also have new predictions that are not rejected by the data. C. Why is the Rational Choice Approach so Popular? [10] Defenders of the rational choice approach – e. g. , Becker (1976) — argue that the approach is useful because it tends to generate non-tautological predictions. Suppose a scholar wants to account for some observed phenomenon P.For example, P might be the fact that wage rates paid to workers (after adjustment for inflation) tend to rise during good economic times [expansions] and fall during bad economic times [recessions]. It is generally quite easy to develop a theory T that predicts P, especially for someone who has studied P ca refully. In fact, many such theories can be constructed. Importantly, however, it is generally not good scientific practice to use the same data to both formulate and test a hypothesis or theory. If so, all theories would be confirmed.Instead, good methodology will develop a theory T that not only predicts P, but that also has other predictions Q1, Q2, Q3, †¦ Ideally, many of these predictions will be observable – that is, one should be able to determine if Q1, Q2, Q3 †¦. do or do not in fact occur. If these predictions are not observed – say not Q1 (~Q1) is observed rather than Q1 – the theory may be judged inadequate and either revised or discarded. If I may be allowed a lapse into imprecise language, a theory can never be right if there is not at least some possibility in the first place for it to be wrong. 11] This is not to say that rational choice theorists are pristine with respect to this requirement. The history of economic thought is no doubt full of bad theories (â€Å"bad† in the sense that one or more key predictions are not consistent with the data) that have been saved by ad hoc modifications. It is to say that proponents of the rational choice approach contend that ad hoc theorizing and the resulting empty tautologies may be less prevalent with their approach than with other approaches.I certainly agree that the rational choice method does in fact tend to generate many testable predictions, and in Sections 4 and 5 below I discuss several illustrative examples. Despite the fact that advocates of rational choice theory justify their approach in this way, I know of no study that explicitly compares methodologies along these lines. Is it really the case that rational choice models have more non-tautological implications than the models implied by other approaches? I am not sure anyone has examined this issue carefully.I believe the rational choice methodology is gaining in popularity not just because it tends t o generate lots of observable predictions, but also because it tends to generate novel predictions. This is an extension of the idea of novel confirmation. Novel confirmation embodies the sentiment expressed by Descartes (1644) that we know hypotheses are correct â€Å"only when we see that we can explain in terms of them, not merely the effects we originally had in mind, but also all other phenomena which we did not previously think. † [Quoted by Musgrave (1974), p. 1)] Campbell and Vinci (1983, p. 15) begin their discussion of novel confirmation as follows: Philosophers of science generally agree that when observational equivalence supports a theory, the confirmation is much stronger when the evidence is ‘novel’. The verification of an unusual prediction, for example, tends to provide much stronger confirmation than the explanation of something already known of something the theory was designed to account for. This view is so familiar that Michael Gardner has r ecently described it as ‘a lengthy tradition – not to say a consensus – in the philosophy of science. ’As seems to often be the case in the philosophy of science, the usefulness of novel confirmation is not as well established as the above quote implies. Campbell and Vinci (1983) also note that â€Å"†¦ the notion of novel confirmation is beset with a theoretical puzzle about how the degree of confirmation can change without any change in the evidence, hypothesis, or auxiliary assumptions. † (p. 315) Kahn, Landsburg, and Stockman (1992) maintain that the question of novel confirmation can be addressed meaningfully only in the presence â€Å"of an explicit model by which hypotheses are generated. † (p. 04) They find that the idea of novel confirmation is valid if there are unobservable differences in the abilities of scientists or if there is some chance of error in observation. [12] Campbell and Vinci (1993) distinguish between epistemic novelty and heuristic novelty. Epistemic novelty occurs when a theory has an implication that would be considered highly improbable in the absence of the theory. There is of course a question over the proper definition of â€Å"highly improbable. † Heuristic novelty occurs when the evidence predicted by a theory plays no heuristic role in the formation of the theory.Descartes would seem to be referring to heuristic novelty in the above quote. Rational choice theory is a useful methodology in part (perhaps in large part) because it tends to lead the researcher to novel implications, thereby making novel confirmation more likely than may be the case with other methodologies. Space and time considerations do not allow me to attempt a full-blown analysis of this conjecture, which in any case I am not really qualified to undertake because of my limited exposure to alternative social science methodologies not based on rational choice and my limited knowledge of the philosophy of s cience.In Sections 4 and 5 below I describe several examples of rational choice theory and some associated novel implications. I should note that the mathematical nature of rational choice theory would appear (to me) to be crucial here. Mathematics allows the theorist to make some sense out of complicated interactions between decision-making units that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to untangle. It is precisely those kinds of situations in which rational choice theories are most likely to have novel implications, because the implications are not immediately apparent even to scholars with knowledge, experience, and intuition.We now proceed to Section 4, which provides a detailed discussion of a rational choice model of church attendance. Section 5 gives shorter summaries of several other rational choice models, including models of suicide, auto safety regulation, addiction, racial profiling, Congressional influence on military assignments, political revolutions, megafauna extinction, and the predictability of consumption spending. 4. A Detailed Example: Church AttendanceAzzi and Ehrenberg (1975) develop a rational choice model of church attendance. This is a classic paper, which Iannaccone (1998, p. 1480) calls â€Å"†¦ the first formal model for religious participation (within any discipline) and †¦ the foundation for nearly all subsequent economic models of religious behavior. † [Italics in original. ] Their analysis begins with the assumption that the utility of a household consisting of two members, a husband and a wife, is given by: (1)U = U(C1, s1, C2, s2, †¦ , Ct, st, †¦ Cn, sn, q), where Ci is the household’s consumption of market goods and services in period i (i = 1, †¦ n), and si denotes religious participation in period i. The model assumes â€Å"for simplicity† that both members of the household know how long they will live and that both will die at date n. This is a dynamic model, because t he household cares about future as well as current consumption. The remaining variable in the household utility function, q, is the â€Å"expected value of the household’s afterlife consumption. Azzi and Ehrenberg assume that church attendance follows from a â€Å"salvation motive† (the desire to increase afterlife consumption) and a â€Å"social pressure motive† (where church membership and participation increases the chances that an individual will be successful in business), rather than necessarily a pure â€Å"consumption motive† (people simply enjoy the time they spend at church). Consumption in period i (any year during which the husband and wife are alive) is given by: (2)Ci = C(xt, h1t, h2t), here xt is denotes the consumption of goods and services purchases in markets, while h1t and h2t are the amounts of time devoted by the husband and wife, respectively, to market-based consumption. The idea here is that satisfaction involves not only the purc hase of a good (such as a television) but also time spent using the good. The social value of church attendance in period i, denoted by si, is determined as follows: (3)si = s(r1i, r2i) where r1i and r2i denote the time spent on church-related activities by the husband and wife, respectively, in year i.People get more current satisfaction from going to church the more time they devote to church-related activities. After-life consumption q is determined as follows: (3)q = q(r11, r12, r21, r22, †¦ , r1n, r2n), That is, the more time spent on church-related activities during all periods of life means the more the household members will enjoy their afterlife. Azzi and Ehrenberg (p. 33, fn. 7) note that â€Å"Our household’s view of the afterlife is not one of an all-or-nothing proposition (heaven or hell), it is rather that there is a continuum of possible outcomes. †The choices of the household are constrained by time and money. The two household members can allocate time in labor [which generates income that can be used to purchase the goods and services denoted by xt in equation (1) above], consumption-related activities [reflected in h1t and h2t in equation (2) above], and church-related activities [reflected in the r1i and r2i in equation (3) above]. The constraint here is that each day has 24 hours. Hence the couple can spend more time on church-related activities only if they spend less time earning income and/or consuming.The second constraint in the model says basically that, over the course of their lives, the couple cannot spend more than their combined income. â€Å"Over the course of their lives† means that it is possible for them to borrow early in life as long as they repay the loan (with interest) later in life. It is also possible to lend early in life, which means that consumption can exceed income later. The amount of labor income the couple earns depends on the amount of time spent working by the husband and wife and t he wage rate each is paid.The model also allows for â€Å"non-labor income† in each period, which might reflect investment returns. The distinction between labor and non-labor income turns out to be rather interesting and important with respect to church attendance. Azzi and Ehrenberg’s analysis is complicated in some respects and simple in others. It is complicated because it considers consumption over several periods rather than just one, and it allows for â€Å"consumption† to depend on time (the h1t and h2t) as well as purchases of goods and services in the market (xt).The model is simple in that it does not consider the â€Å"supply side. † That is, the model simply assumes that the household can â€Å"buy† any amount that it likes of consumption goods (xt) and that there are no effective limits on religious participation (st). The power of the rational choice approach is that rational choice models tend to have lots of observable implications , some of which are novel. The Azzi and Ehrenberg model implies that: (i) The frequency of church attendance increases with age; †¢ (ii) Females attend church more frequently than males; †¢ (iii) Nonwhites attend church more frequently than whites; †¢ (iv) People who believe in an afterlife attend church more frequently; †¢ (v) Having a spouse of the same major religion increases participation; †¢ (vi) As health deteriorates church attendance declines; †¢ (vii) An increase in the number of pre-school age children present in the household reduces church attendance; †¢ (viii) An increase in the number of school-age children present in the household increases church attendance; (ix) Females’ hours devoted to religious activities will rise more rapidly with age than will the hours devoted by males to religious activities; †¢ (x) For males who show sharp earnings increases in their 20s, religious participation may first decline with age and then increase; †¢ (xi) An increase in nonlabor income will increase religious participation; and †¢ (xii) The effect of a proportionate shift in wages (say, a 10% increase in the present and all future periods) on church attendance is ambiguous. Many of these implications are not surprising, but (ix) would appear to be somewhat novel.Item (ii) means that 40 year old women will attend church more frequently than 40 year old men. Item (ix) means that the change (increase) in church participation associated with aging from 40 to 50 will be greater among women than among men. Item (ii) follows directly from the fact that females tend to have lower wages. Thus if one could find couples in which the wife earns more than the man, the model predicts for those couples that the wife will probably not be inclined to attend church more frequently. Also, allowing for an uncertain time of death may overturn (i): â€Å"†¦ nce an individual is faced with a relatively high probabilit y of death in a period it may become optimal for him to concentrate his religious participation as early as possible, since he may not survive to ‘invest’ in future periods. † (p. 38) 5. Several Brief Examples This section presents a brief overview of several applications of rational choice theory. Unlike the church attendance example above, in which the form of the utility function was written out explicitly, the discussions in this section for the most part present only brief descriptions of the relevant optimization problems and some of the resulting implications. A.Suicide Hamermesh and Soss (1974) develop a rational choice theory of suicide. They assume that the utility of an individual in any given period depends positively on â€Å"consumption† and negatively on â€Å"a technological relation describing the cost each period of maintaining [oneself] at some minimum level of subsistence. † (p. 85) â€Å"Consumption† is a function of age a nd of â€Å"permanent income,† which is a measure of current and expected future income. Individuals are assumed to vary exogenously (according to a probability distribution) in their distastes for suicide – that is, some individuals are more averse to suicide than others.This framework implies that â€Å"†¦ an individual kills himself when the total discounted lifetime utility remaining to him reaches zero. † (p. 85). Thus in this model we have a rational individual who is forward looking, considering not only his present utility but what his future utility is likely to be. If total utility over the rest of his life is higher with suicide and life ending in the present than it is with the continuation of life, suicide is the â€Å"rational† option. Here are some of the major implications of the model. (i) The suicide rate should rise with age. †¢ (ii) The suicide rate should fall with increases in permanent income[13] and decreases in the unemp loyment rate. †¢ (iii) The marginal absolute effect of permanent income on suicide declines as permanent income increases. The first two effects are by no means surprising, but the third effect is certainly by no means obvious ex ante (at least to me). (ii) means that suicide rates will fall as income rises. (iii) means that the effect of increases in income gets smaller the larger income is to begin with.A $10,000 raise is much more likely to prevent suicide if the person is earning $50,000 to begin with than if the person is earning $150,000. This is quite plausible, but the point is that it is not something most analysts would think about ex ante. B. Auto Safety Regulation. Peltzman (1975) considers the likely effects of â€Å"legally mandated installation of various safety devices[14] on automobiles. †[15] The devices in question for the most part were designed to reduce the damages caused by accidents rather than to reduce the likelihood that accidents occur. Peltzm an notes that the auto safety literature estimates the impact of afety mandates by assuming that (i) the mandates have no effect on the probability that an accident will occur, and (ii) the mandates have no effect on the voluntary demand for safety devices. In effect, the regulations were implemented based on analysis that assumed the same number and nature of accidents would occur, but that automobiles would be better equipped to protect drivers and passengers from injury and death. He notes that â€Å"[t]echnological studies imply that annual highway deaths would be 20 percent greater without legally mandated installation of various safety devices on automobiles. (p. 677) Peltzman considers the behavior of a typical driver and postulates quite reasonably that he or she is made worse off by traffic accidents – or, equivalently, that he or she benefits from safety. Peltzman also assumes, however, that the driver benefits from what he calls â€Å"driving intensity,† by which he means â€Å"more speed, thrills, etc. † (p. 681). Other things equal, the driver can obtain more driving intensity only by driving less safely. Thus the driver faces a trade-off between two goods, intensity and safety, in which more of one can be obtained only by giving up some of the other.This kind of trade-off is in standard fare for rational choice theorists. In basic consumer choice theory the consumer with a given income can obtain more of one good only if he or she consumes less of some other good (or goods). The standard consumer choice problem also considers what happens when the consumer’s income rises. Rational choice theory predicts that, in the absence of very unusual circumstances, the consumer will buy more of most goods when income rises. Put another way, it is typically not the case that a consumer will allocate one hundred percent of an increase in income to increased consumption of a single good.Income increases tend to be â€Å"spread aro und† over several goods. Peltzman argues that the imposition of mandated safety devices in automobiles is rather like an increase in income in the sense that the devices make it possible for drivers to obtain both more safety and more intensity. Technological studies in effect assume that drivers will respond by consuming only more safety, but rational choice theory indicates that drivers can also respond by consuming more intensity (that is, by driving less safely). The extent to which drivers choose between more safety and more intensity is ultimately an empirical question.Suppose drivers choose to increase consumption of both safety and intensity — which is what economists have come to expect in these kinds of situations. In this case, the rational choice model implies that the number of total driving accidents[16] should rise because of increased driving intensity, while the average amount of damage per accident – as reflected, say in the number of fatalities among passengers – should decrease because of the safety improvements. This means that it is actually possible for total traffic fatalities to rise as a result of the safety mandates!This would happen if the increase in the number of accidents is sufficiently large relative to the decrease in average damage per accident. Once again we have an example of a rational choice model yielding implications that are not obvious ex ante. The novel predictions here are that the imposition of auto safety mandates (i) should increase the occurrence of traffic accidents, and (ii) should decrease the relative frequency of accidents involving passenger fatalities, and (iii) may increase or decrease the total number of traffic fatalities.After extensive empirical testing based on several data sets, Peltzman concludes that â€Å"regulation appears not to have reduced highway deaths. † (p. 714). There is indeed some evidence that the number of deaths increased, but in most cases that ev idence is not strong. In any case, there is no evidence that the regulations decreased traffic fatalities. Peltzman also finds that the safety mandates were followed by an increase in the number of accidents involving pedestrians and by an increase in the number of accidents involving only property damage with no injury to vehicle occupants.A related paper by McCormick and Tollison (1984) considers the effect on arrest rates of an increase in the number of police officers. Rational choice theory indicates that the quality of law enforcement should not be judged by arrest rates alone. If the number of police officers increases and as a result the probability of arrest for any given crime increases, rational prospective criminals will see the expected cost of crime rise and therefore undertake fewer criminal acts.Total arrests reflect both the number of criminal acts (which should fall) and the percentage of criminal acts for which an arrest is made (which should rise). Total arrests rise only if the latter effect is stronger than the former. McCormick and Tollison test their theory using data from the Atlantic Coast Conference in men’s college basketball. In 1978, the conference increased the number of officials from two to three. In this context, one may think of officials as police officers and fouls called as arrests.McCormick and Tollison find that this 50 percent increase in the number of officials caused a 34 percent reduction in the number of fouls called (p. 229). When my son Aaron (now almost 5 years old) was an infant, he attended the Baylor Child Development Center during the day. In the room where the teacher changed diapers, there was a pad on the counter but no restraint of any kind (such as a belt or guard rail). When I asked the director about this, she said that there was no restraint because she (the director) did not want to give the teacher a false sense of security.With a belt or rail, the teacher might be tempted to walk away for â €Å"just a minute† to check on something in the room. Whether restraints increase or decrease changing table accidents is an empirical question, though Pelzman’s analysis suggests the director made the right decision. C. Addiction Stigler and Becker (1977) propose a rational choice theory of addiction, a theory subsequently elaborated by Becker and Murphy (1988). In this theory, â€Å"a person is potentially addicted to [some good] c if an increase in his current consumption of c increases his future consumption of c. (Becker and Murphy, 1988, p. 81) The key feature of these models is that a consumer’s utility in any given period depends not just on consumption in that period, but also on â€Å"consumption capital†. Consumption capital is essentially the consumer’s ability to enjoy a particular good, which depends on past consumption of the good and perhaps on other factors. If past consumption enhances current enjoyment ability, the addition is s aid to be beneficial. This might be the case, for example, with listening to classical music. The more one listens to classical music, the greater one’s capacity to appreciate it.Stigler and Becker note that beneficial consumption capital might also be positively influenced by education. Highly educated people might have a greater capacity to enjoy things like classical music, opera, and art. If past consumption reduces current enjoyment ability, the addition is said to be harmful. This is the case with substances such as heroin and other substances normally considered to be addictive. The more heroin a person consumes in the present, the less will be his or her future enjoyment (â€Å"high†) from any given amount of heroin consumption in the future. 17] The formal setup in Stigler and Becker (1977, p. 78) is relatively simple. First consider beneficial addiction – to, say, classical music. Consumer utility (U) depends positively on two goods, M (music appreciat ion) and Z (other goods): U = U(M, Z). Music appreciation depends positively on the time allocated to music listening â„ ¢ and on music consumption capital (Sm): M = M(tm, Sm). Music consumption capital at date j, Smj, depends positively on the time allocated to music consumption in the past, Mj-1, Mj-2, †¦. and positively (perhaps) on the person’s level of education at time j (denoted Ej): Smj = S(Mj-1, Mj-2, †¦ , Ej). The addition is beneficial if Smj depends on positively on the past values of M. Alternatively, for harmful addition we may replace M with H, where H denotes the consumption of a good such as heroin. In this case, consumption capital S depends negatively on past values of H. The elaborated model of Becker and Murphy (1988) views addictive behavior as a situation in which the consumption of a particular good begins to increase rapidly. [18] Their model has a number of implications. Perhaps he most interesting is their finding that the demand for ad dictive goods should be quite sensitive to permanent changes in price (where the â€Å"price† of illegal goods includes the expected costs associated with apprehension by authorities, as well as any foregone earnings that may result from becoming addicted and, say, unable to work), but not necessarily to temporary price changes. A second implication is that strong addictions, if they are to end, must end suddenly (â€Å"cold turkey†). â€Å"Rational persons end stronger addictions more rapidly than weaker ones. † (p. 692). Other implications are that â€Å"addicts often go on binges† (p. 75), â€Å"present-oriented individuals are potentially more addicted to harmful goods than future-oriented individuals† (p. 682), and â€Å"temporary events can permanently ‘hook’ rational persons to addictive goods† (p. 691). Stigler and Becker (1977) and Becker and Murphy (1988) do not perform empirical tests of their models of rational addic tion. Tests have been performed by other authors, however. Because good consumption data are not available for illegal substances, tests have focused on tobacco and caffeine. Tests based on tobacco consumption are reported by Becker, Grossman, and Murphy (1994), and Keeler, et. l. (1993). A test based on caffeine consumption is reported by Olekalns and Bardsley (1996). These tests are generally supportive of the rational addiction theory. Becker and Murphy (1988) note that with a simple extension their model can explain cycles of overeating and dieting. Their basic analysis assumes there is only one kind of consumption capital. Suppose that with respect to food there are instead two types of consumption capital, one of which is simply the person’s weight (which might be called â€Å"health capital†) and the other of which is â€Å"eating capital. That is, eating can be both harmful and beneficial in the senses defined above. As eating increases, health capital falls ( weight gain has detrimental effects on health) and eating capital rises (the capacity to enjoy food is greater the more one eats). Under appropriate conditions, utility maximization results in cycles of dieting and binging. [19] Rational addiction theory has been applied to the analysis of religious behavior – see Iannaccone (1984, 1990) and Durkin and Greeley (1991). Iannaccone (1998) summarizes this approach. Utility depends on â€Å"religious commodities† produced, the value of which depends on â€Å"religious human capital. The stock of religious human capital depends on time and money devoted to religious activities in the past. These models have the following predictions, â€Å"nearly all of which receive strong empirical support† (Iannaccone, 1998, p. 1481): †¢ Individuals tend to move toward the denominations and beliefs of their parents as they mature and start to make their own decisions about religion; †¢ People are more likely to switch de nominations early in life; †¢ People tend to marry within religions; if they do not, one spouse is likely to adopt the religion of the other.D. Racial Profiling Law enforcement authorities in many jurisdictions have been criticized in recent years for racial bias in their choice of cars to search for illegal drugs and other contraband. [20] The fact that police are more inclined to stop and search cars driven by members of certain minority groups is well established. Knowles, Persico, and Todd (2001) develop a rational choice model that â€Å"suggests an empirical test for distinguishing whether this disparity is due to racial prejudice or to the police’s objective to maximize arrests. In their model, the typical police officer â€Å"maximizes the total number of convictions minus a cost of searching cars. † (p. 209) Motorists â€Å"consider the probability of being searched in deciding whether to carry contraband. † (p. 209) At least some motorists percei ve a benefit to carrying contraband. If they do carry, their expected benefit is positive if they are not searched and negative (that is, there is a positive expected cost) if they are searched. The model implies that if police officers are not racially biased, the frequency of guilt among motorists conditional on being searched will be independent of race. 21] In their empirical analysis based on 1,590 searches on a stretch of Interstate 95 in Maryland between January 1995 and January 1999, Knowles, Persico, and Todd find support for this proposition. They interpret this result as â€Å"the absence of racial prejudice against African Americans† (p. 212). The fact remains, however, that African Americans are searched more frequently than whites. If this does not arise from racial bias by police officers, then why does it occur?One possibility noted by the authors is that â€Å"race may proxy for other variables that are unobservable by the policy officer and are correlated w ith both race and crime. Possible examples of such unobservables are the schooling level or the earnings potential of the motorist. † (p. 212) While one may quibble with some elements of this study, for our present purposes the main point is that the rational choice theory, at least potentially, yielded implications that allowed the analyst to gain some insight (if not a final resolution) into the issue of racial profiling. E. Congressional Influence on Military AssignmentsPrior to the 1960s, economic theory tended to view politicians and other government officials (bureaucrats) as disinterested observers and regulators of economic activity. A group of economics led by Nobel Laureate James Buchanan then developed a branch of economics known as public choice theory, which views government officials as self-interested maximizers. Goff and Tollison (1987) take a public choice approach to gain some understanding of casualties in the Vietnam War. The typical soldier is assumed to p refer not to be placed in risky combat situations, and this preference is shared by the soldier’s family.A solider (or more likely his family) might therefore try to gain a low-risk assignment by asking for intervention in military decisions by his Senator or Representative. Senators and Representatives are assumed to desire re-election, which implies a desire to please their constituencies. The ability of a Senator or Representative to have this kind of influence, however, varies according to committee assignments, ties to the military/industrial complex, etc. Goff and Tollison assume that political influence depends on seniority, with more seniority implying more influence.Taken together, all these assumptions have the straightforward implication that soldiers from states with more senior (and hence more influential) Senators and Representatives should, other things equal, have experienced fewer casualties in Vietnam than soldiers from states with less senior (and therefore less influential) Senators and Representatives. Their empirical analysis (using data from January 1961 to September 1972) supports the hypothesis: In the House, the Mississippi delegation had an average seniority of 27. 7, while Hawaii had an average seniority of 61. . [A seniority ranking of 1 indicates the member had the highest seniority in his or her party. ] In terms of lives, this represents about 6 fewer war deaths for every 100,000 of population in Mississippi relative to Hawaii. Ceteris paribus, this difference in House seniority leads to a 55 percent higher casualty rate for Hawaii than Mississippi. †¦ In the Senate, Arkansas had an average seniority of 6. 2, and Maryland had an average seniority of 45. 4. Other things equal †¦, this difference leads to an 86 percent higher casualty rate for Maryland than for Arkansas.In terms of lives, this translates into about 7 more war deaths for every 100,000 of population in Maryland than in Arkansas. (pp. 319-20) In this case, the value of the rational choice approach is not so much in the fact that it yields surprising answers to a well-established question, but that it suggests a unique question to ask in the first place. It is by no means obvious that someone not thinking about self-interested Senators and Representatives would even think to ask the question addressed by Goff and Tollison. F. Ideology and IntransigenceRoemer (1985) applies game theory to the analysis of political revolutions. Specifically, he presents a two-player game between â€Å"Lenin† and the â€Å"Tsar. † Lenin’s objective is to maximize the probability of revolution, while the Tsar’s objective is to minimize that probability. As in any game-theoretic setting, when making decisions each player keeps in mind how the other player might react. Lenin tries to create revolution by lining up coalitions, where people are induced to join a coalition with the promise of income redistribution.The Tsar tri es to prevent revolution by promising to punish anyone who participates in revolutionary activities (assuming the revolution attempt is unsuccessful). Increased penalties reduce the number of individuals who are likely to join the coalition but increase the revolutionary fervor of those who do. An individual will join a coalition attempting to overthrow the Tsar if the expected benefit to him or her of doing so exceeds the expected cost. There is of course some uncertainty about the outcome. Roemer’s results include the following: it is shown that various â€Å"tyrannical† aspects of the Tsar’s strategy, and â€Å"progressive† aspects of Lenin’s strategy need not flow from ideological precommitments, but are simply good optimizi