Microscope Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Microscope - Lab Report Example Bright field microscope is also called as student microscope. Bright field microscope can be used to study live micro organisms and pre- prepared slides. (Fixed stained smears). (Bain 2008). Bright Field Microscope: In this lab bright field microscope is used. The main parts of the microscope are lens system, revolving nose piece, stage, condenser and Iris diaphragm, light source, course focusing knob and fine focusing knob. The lens system consists of ocular and objectives. Ocular lens is the eye piece lens through which the specimen is viewed. Oculars have a magnifying power of 10 x in student microscope and the level of magnification is marked in the ocular. (Bisen and Sharma 2012). There are three objectives with different magnifying power. The scanning objective has the shortest magnifying power of 4x and it is the lowest magnifying power in a microscope. This lens is used to locate the specimen in the slide and to observe the large structures. The low power objective has the ma gnifying power of 10 x and used to observe the smaller structures at little detail. The high power objective of the student microscope has the longest objective and magnifying power of this objective is 40 x. fine details about the specimen are studied using this high power objective. (Bisen and Sharma 2012). The revolving nose piece has the objectives. The objectives with different magnifying power are chosen using this revolving nose piece. The stage is the flat surface on present below the objective on which the specimen is mounted. The centre of the stage has an opening through which the light passes on the specimen. (Bain 2008). The stage is mechanical and geared. The mechanical stage can be... In this lab bright field microscope is used. The main parts of the microscope are lens system, revolving nose piece, stage, condenser and Iris diaphragm, light source, course focusing knob and fine focusing knob. The lens system consists of ocular and objectives. Ocular lens is the eye piece lens through which the specimen is viewed. Oculars have a magnifying power of 10 x in student microscope and the level of magnification is marked in the ocular. (Bisen and Sharma 2012). There are three objectives with different magnifying power. The scanning objective has the shortest magnifying power of 4x and it is the lowest magnifying power in a microscope. This lens is used to locate the specimen in the slide and to observe the large structures.   The low power objective has the magnifying power of 10 x and used to observe the smaller structures at little detail. The high power objective of the student microscope has the longest objective and magnifying power of this objective is 40 x. fin e details about the specimen are studied using this high power objective.   The revolving nose piece has the objectives. The objectives with different magnifying power are chosen using this revolving nose piece. The stage is the flat surface on present below the objective on which the specimen is mounted. The centre of the stage has an opening through which the light passes on the specimen. (Bain 2008). The stage is mechanical and geared. The mechanical stage can be move to obtain the better resolution.

A Better Way to Keep the Net Open and Accessible Research Proposal

A Better Way to Keep the Net Open and Accessible - Research Proposal Example Customers are different, and so are their demands. As the Internet is becoming a commonplace instrument of communication, many of them also want to use chats and web messenger interfaces to contact potential suppliers. More often than not, it is the quality of communication and sales support that guides customers in their purchasing decisions. One morning, this manager notices that access to web interfaces and chat applications was blocked by the Internet provider, on the premise that they may threaten the safety of the online environment. In the meantime, the Internet provider also provides a list of chat and web interfaces to be used by the manager. Does it benefit the sales manager and the organization, for which he works? Certainly, it does not. It is the same as being unable to watch YouTube videos and using Facebook and other social networks to talk to people from all over the world. Network neutrality guarantees that Internet providers cannot use their advantageous position to discriminate against individual rights and freedoms of online users.  Ã‚  Customers are different, and so are their demands. As the Internet is becoming a commonplace instrument of communication, many of them also want to use chats and web messenger interfaces to contact potential suppliers. More often than not, it is the quality of communication and sales support that guides customers in their purchasing decisions. One morning, this manager notices that access to web interfaces and chat applications was blocked by the Internet provider, on the premise that they may threaten the safety of the online environment. In the meantime, the Internet provider also provides a list of chat and web interfaces to be used by the manager. Does it benefit the sales manager and the organization, for which he works? Certainly, it does not. It is the same as being unable to watch YouTube videos and using Facebook and other social networks to talk to people from all over the world. Network neutralit y guarantees that Internet providers cannot use their advantageous position to discriminate against individual rights and freedoms of online users.  Ã‚   Network neutrality is essential to freedom and openness in the networked world. In other words, network neutrality guarantees that all web resources are available for users, irrespective of whether Internet providers benefit or lose from making these web resources available and accessible. This makes sense because, on the one hand, online users need freedom in accessing and using information and, on the other hand, only network neutrality can guarantee fair competition in the online world. Imagine a situation, when online providers block access to online newspapers and magazines, merely because these newspapers and magazines do not pay a share of their profits to Internet providers. Frustrated and lost, these users find themselves in a mist of unawareness. They do not read the news; they do not know about political and economic c hanges in the world.

Leadership and Organisational Climate Effect on Innovation

Leadership and Organisational Climate Effect on Innovation Access the respective contributions of leadership and organisational climate to promote innovation. 1. Introduction Now more than ever, companies are putting more attention to innovation that make their products and services more competitive, thereby enable them to survive and flourish in the changeable and challenging global environment. There is vast number of articles and papers supporting that innovation can significantly enhance sustainable competitive advantage (Porter, 1998; Shoham and Fieganbaum, 2002; McEvily et al., 2004). Tidd Bessant (2009, p.4) also stressed that innovation is regarded as a key driver of competitive advantage in the manufacturing sector. Innovation is seen by Fagerberg (Fagerberg,et al 2006, p.4) as the first attempt to carry out a new creative idea, and translate it into practice. However, it isnt easy; its a difficult and complex task. According to Tidd and Bessant (2009 p70), there are two primary factors influencing the success of innovation: technical resources (people, equipment, knowledge, money, etc.) and the abilities in the organisation to manage these resources to encourage innovations. However, LAM (Fagerberg,et al 2006 et al 2006, p.115) points out that the latter is the precondition which can place high premiums on innovation. Organisation is a kind of breeding ground for generating creative idea and capturing new opportunities. According to Tidd and Bessant (2009 p.100), an innovative organisation has several key components: appropriate structure, effective team working, external focus, leadership, key individual, creative climate and etc. All the factors are absolutely essential. All innovative organisation needs leadership at every level. Wenger and Snyder (2000) shows that there is a positive relationship between leadership and innovation. There are increasing evidences to prove that unique leadership asserts great importance to innovation efficiently and effectively (Oke et al. 2008). In an organisation, half of the changes in performance are attributable to leadership directly and indirectly (Tidd and Bessant 2009, p.103). Steve Jobs, the CEO of Apple, who has led Apple to become the giant in the technology market with innovative products, is a typical example to illustrate how important and influential of leadership to innovation and creativity, in order to make his organisation a household name within the industry and worldwide alike. Leadership is becoming more and more popular nowadays. There are many articles, discussions and forums in newspapers, TV shows about how a CEO joining a badly performed company makes the company stop losing money and even regain profit in few years time. And with successful leadership, company has successfully developed a new product. Undeniably, leadership capabilities are the paramount element to sustain an organisation to top the innovative rank and achieve remarkable revenue. One of the most important roles that the leaders play within organisation settings is to create the climate for innovation (Bessant Tidd 2009). Organizational climate for innovation is crucial. West (1990) proposed that when in an organization, peoples creative ideas can be presented without worry about the refuse and ridicule, and can be highly valued and supported, and then innovation can be encouraged. The essay will go through to respectively access the contributions of leadership and organizational climate for innovation. 2. What is leadership? There are many definitions of leadership. Most researchers probably would agree that leadership can be viewed as a group process rather that a role, which is conducted by the group leader through leading and managing his or her followers to influence the process so that they can successfully accomplish their tasks and meet desired common goal (Northhouse 2009, p.3; Jacobs Jaques 1990, p281). No matter the size of a company or an organisation, leadership is vital (ORegan Ghobadian 2006). With poor or no leadership, an organisation will be chaotic. Plenty of examples show that strong leaderships can reverse the worsening business situation. Apple former CEO John Sculley replaced Steve Jobs as the new Apple CEO in 1985 with a high salary plus big bonuses guarantee. During his tenure, he made a big mistake that was to give Microsoft the authority to use Apple Macintosh graphical user interface in Microsofts windows operation system. The wrong decision opened the door to Microsofts Windows Vista and Window 7 operation system, for which the graphical user interface is similar to Macintoshs look and feel, to compete with Apple, and resulting in the latter losing in the lawsuit of plagiarism. Also because of his inaccurate perceptions to Apples product line, Apple launched the world first PAD Newton, which produced disastrous sales because of the high price and bad software pro blems. Under his leadership, Apples market share and stock prices continued to slide, and could not recover for several years until the current Apple CEO Steve Jobs took control of the Company again (Hormby 2006). Similarly, 3M is known for years as an innovator. However, several years ago, under the leadership of former CEO James McNerney, 3M shifted its strategy from innovation to quality control by implementing Six Sigma. Thousands of budgets were cut, hundreds of RD engineers were laid off, and many innovative projects were suspended. Although 3M had had a sound financial balance sheet at the beginning of his tenure, however the long-term damage is detrimental to the whole business. 3M has slided downward from the top rank of innovator ever since (Hindo 2007). 3. Type of Leadership Leadership may touch on all the employees in an organisation, and can be found in every level (Bass Riggio 2008). According to Northouse (2009), there are two different forms of leaderships, which are assigned leadership and emergent leadership. The people get the formal position to be a leader in an organisation, such as the team leader, department manager, CEO, etc, which are called the assigned leadership. Nevertheless, those people with nominal position sometimes are not the real leader but a figurehead for the team in some particular circumstances because of the lack of sufficient personal competence. On the opposite, some people who have not been officially assigned to a leader position, but they perform as a leader with the chief characteristics for a real leader, they can take the challenge to fulfil the team goal, and be regarded as a leader by the people in the organisation, which Northouse call them emergent leadership. IBM e-business real leader Dave Grossman is an examp le. When Dave Grossman came to IBM as a programmer, he found the importance of open internet to expand IBMs business, therefore, he tried to convince IBM top management the bright future of the new e-business. Eventually, IBM accepted his proposal and started opening up their e-business. With his effort, IBM successfully developed its e-business under his leadership, which transformed IBM from a broken up big blue-chip company to a new dot-com company (Tidd Bessant 2009; Hamel 2000). Dave Grossman was only a programmer, but he has the characteristics that leader should have such as vision and passion. No doubt, Grossman, at the time, was an innovative leader, who had a clear vision and successfully turned around and transformed an underperformed company from its old business model to a brighter future. 4. Characteristics of Innovation Leader Leadership always has some visions on bringing about the organisation better prospects. In this sense, leaders are necessarily innovators, who facilitate inventions to materialize their visions of better future (Selman 2009). A leader is not necessarily a great man or hero type of figure, and do not necessarily have university certificate. We heard a number of innovation leaders, who did not graduate from college but still have achieved great successes. Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft, Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple, they both did not finish their college (Although they tried to get degree after their successes). Nevertheless, they have devoted most of their lifetime to pursue their goals, and have secured unprecedented achievement. Its the passion to their business and success, which keeps driving them. Although there are no universal characterises that an innovation leader should possess, generally, other than passionate about the business and success, people usually think a good leader should possess good communication skill, administrative and social capability, skills in their task domain, responsibility, and energetic, initiative, flexibile (Tidd Bessan 2009, pp.104-105). Importantly, an innovation leader must be a good communicator, who is able to help their followers to fully understand the strategy of the organisation, and make sure all of his or her followers will be able to implement the leaders strategy correctly. At the same time, this can guarantee that all followers be timely informed of the progress of the organisation and what the progress of each individual. This can ensure the whole process be smoothly and precisely completed task by task and therefore achieve the common strategic objective (Zerfass Huck 2007). Internally, a innovation leader should administrate well the process of implementation of each task, and make sure the team can complete the task in time and meet all requirements. Externally, the leader should take the responsibility to build up a social network that can promote the product or service on behalf of the company, so that the product and service can be developed and commercialized successfully, which requires the social skill of the leader. (Storiti 2006). Therefore, a innovation leadership should be a good communicator, a good administrator, and a good social swinger. To lead an innovative team, innovation leaders should have substantial knowledge of his given domain. Yuki (2006) points out that expertise can be taken as a power by leader to influence their followers. Other than expertise, cognitive-processing skills are crucial factors to an innovative leader. Combination of expertise and cognitive-processing skills can allow leaders to communicate more clearly with their followers, to better understand the exact needs from their followers, and provide them with prompt and correct support (Tidd Bessant 2009, p.105). Outside, the expertise leaders can present their team more effectively. We can look back to the earlier example of the Apple former CEO John Sculley, his inability to Apples product line is the big reason of his failure. There are thousands of reasons to determine how innovation leaders should be responsible for their task and willing to take the responsibility for all the actions during the innovation process. To get respect and trust from the followers, the most important thing to do is to give them the credit for all achievements and successes, and take the responsibility for any fallings or mistakes. Therefore, followers will be motivated and will be more willing to be led. Due to the dot com bubble in 2001, Cisco had suffered a lot, sales has plunged largely and stock price fells down sharply, more severe, the employee has became very anxious and lost their desire. During the rough time, Cisco CEO John Chambers, took this as his responsibility, requested to reduce his salary to one dollar annually without any bonus until the recovery of company performance. Urged on by his behavior, employee has cheered up and work harder so that Cisco could return to profitability by 2004. 5. Innovation Leadership and Doing the right things Leadership is very important in every step of innovation process (Waldman and Bass,1991). Although some innovations are created by the employees, who are not in the positions as nominal leaders or anyone in the management board, generally speaking, almost all the innovations emerge from a clear strategy and all-around support from the leadership. By assessing the right things a leadership should do such as making long-term strategy, dealing with turbulence and uncertainty, serving and supporting their followers, etc (Isaksen Tidd, 2006, p136), we can generate an outline that explains how leadership contributes to the promotion of innovation. Mapping out a visionary strategy is the fundamental task for an innovative leader to guide the followers to think and behave in a right direction and thus complying with the organisations specific goal. Creative teams have clear and common goals (Tidd and Isaksen 2006, p186). Although freedom is one of the most important part to creativity, which is an essential part of innovation, generally, creativity stems from peoples reaction to a specific goal rather than waiting for peoples affective appeal (Jaussi Dionne 2003). Goal-setting has been viewed as a motivational technique to creativity (Locke Latham 1990). Firstly, it gives the followers a general framework of what kind of idea that will be appreciated and applicable in the organisation in a specific time; Secondly, Gladstein (1984) found that in an organisation, a common goal can make all the members work more closely that can enhance the communication in organisation and facilitate information sharing so as to ignite the spark of creativity and innovation. As Lazonick (Fagerberg,et al 2006, p.20) mentioned, there are many uncertainties in innovation process. An effective leader should have the ability and sight to forecast and preview possibilities that may occur during the process. As for the existing uncertainties and turbulence, leadership can solve these problems by several strategies including buffering, smoothing, adapting, and rationing, at the same time, the leadership can give followers some directions, encouragement and trust to motivate them, so that the process can operate as efficiently as possible in every aspect (Gemin Tarondeau 1982). A great leader understands the perspectives of uncertainty and turbulence as full of opportunities and as the outcome of innovation. In 2001, after dotcom bubble busted, Apples CEO Steve Jobs launched hard disk based iPod, with a high storage of 1000 music songs, and entered the much crowded MP3 player market. This was viewed by many as bad entry timing. Previously, this market sector was dominated by flash memory based MP3 players from Sony and many small manufacturers around the world, with 512MB storage much less than iPod. iPod was a user-friendly, click-wheel interface driven by a powerful marketing campaign overseen by Jobs personally. Jobss vision was realized in 2003 when Apple opened its first iTunes store, selling licensed music tracks to consumers. This demonstrates that Jobs understood the competitive edge of his iPod and launched it in the aftermath of crash of dotcom bubble. The success of iPod and iTunes has shown a great example of the combination of innovation and strategy at work. Of course, it further enhances the position of Jobs being the leader of innovative product in IT world even at the time of uncertainty. Robert Greenleaf (Isaksen Tidd 2006, p133) proposed the concept of servant leadership which means the leaders firstly should serve and help their followers, and understand their needs and provide the support, which is essential for innovation. For example, in order to gain market place through innovative products, an organisation must commit strategic resources, which are controlled in the hands of top management, in another word, the leadership. This is obvious that when a leadership is reluctant to commit resources, innovation can hardly be nourished. We can see the release of Betamax in 1970s, the first generation of video cassette recorder, was the strategic initiative of Akio Morita, the late founder and chairman of Sony Corp at the time. Akio dedicated resources to the RD team for the Betamax development (Oke et al. 2008). Leadership is about transformation and has largely to do with challenging the way business have been achieved so far. They usually do things differently, rather than do things better. Transformational Leaders will have the encouragement to rebel the stereotypes, and spend time to thinking out of the box. Beside, they like to taking thoughtful risks and building strong teams of people to work across boundaries. By doing things differently or unconventionally, distinguishes innovative leader from ordinary leader. 6. Organisational Climate As mentioned earlier, the other crucial factor the innovative leadership needs is to create an organisational climate for innovation. Klein and Sorra(1996) stressed that organisational climate is a key factor in innovation implementation. Building up an innovative climate or culture in an organisation is one of the important tasks of an innovative leadership. At the same time, creative organisational climate is one of fundamental elements that leads to success of innovation. Doing so successfully will certainly further secure and strengthen the leadership, which initiates innovative climate in the first place. This success will also bind more followers to the leadership because of its respective contributions for innovation, or in another word future success. A leadership should have a quality and skills to manoeuvre the internal environment of an organisation to create a favourable climate for innovation. Ashkanasy et al (2000) maintained that although there is no direct influence between organisational climate and innovation, a favourable climate can naturally drive people to seek innovation. Schneider (1990) stressed that organisational climate is generally defined as employees affection to their working environment and the anticipation of what kind of behaviour can be rewarded. Climate more concerned to the individuals feeling, behaviour and attitude in an organisation, however, it has been regarded as an attribution of the organisation (Ekvall, 1996). It can influence the communication, problem solving, decision making and the way of learning (Isaksen Tidd 2006, p.328). Unlike the culture, which is concerned with deeper and more enduring values, norm and beliefs, the climate is easier to be observed and changed(Isaksen Tidd 2006, pp.308-309) There have been many dimensions of organisational climate such as trust and openness, challenge and involvement, idea time and support, conflict and debate, risk taking and freedom, which have been identified as the most critical factors for supporting creativity and change (Isaksen Tidd 2006, p329). We will look into the following aspects of climate for innovation and their interactions with leadership contributions trust and openness in an organisation challenge and involvement support and space of ideas conflict and debate risk taking freedom 6.1 Trust and Openness Trust and openness concern more about the emotional level. Trust can increase resource-exchange and combination between business units, which contribute to produce innovation (Fagerberg,et al 2006). Ewicki et al (1998) contested that trust can be treated as a fundamental ingredient for the organisation to collaborate with each other; consequently, the collaborative climate can nurture innovation (Ruppel and Harrington, 2001). With strong level of trust and openness, people in the organisation will feel safe so that they can speak out their minds and raise some divergent points. They dont fear their ideas will be stolen. If employee feels that the management and leadership always are there to criticize new idea or comment, employee wound not take the risk to put forward their new ideas. For Instance, in order to avert such fear, in 3M, they have set up the Genesis Grants for people who have proposed new ideas even though these ideas are deemed not suitable to his or her current work d ivision or office department. In doing so, this has encouraged employees to present their thoughts and ideas freely. At the same time, to take balance between useful ideas, and unwanted, wild cat and time wasting ideas, 3M has the 15 percent rule that can uphold employee to explore new idea by doing the project they are interested in. Furthermore, with openness, the employee can learn from others experience so as to avoid some unnecessary attempts or mistakes which may save a great deal of time and money; at the same time, employee can get some clues from the others mistake and generate some new ideas. What 3M does here, is to provide a safety net for staff to freely express their ideas and comments, whilst keeping certain degrees of control over the commentary process of avoiding intentional or unintentional abuse of the trust and openness between leadership and staff, or among fellow staff and their peers. 6.2 Challenge and Involvement Challenge and involvement means the degree that people are involved in daily operations, long-term goal and visions (Tidd Bessant 2009), which can emotionally influence the peoples enthusiasm for their work which can contribute to the success of the organisation. During the stickiness to a same task, people may feel dull and lack of interest, however, certain challenge such as a new task or a new position which can inspire people to exert their capability on creative thinking and intrinsic motivation. 3M CEO have applied the mechanism renewal to encourage the innovation. Under such circumstances, new businesses are branched out from old or existing businesses. New management teams are then assigned to new business units. As a result, these new units are able to grow quickly. When these new businesses are under new managements, the newly established business unities have to develop new products and find new markets to achieve their growth objectives to make up for contributions from the old or existing businesses, which they have become segregated from. As stated by Carmeli and Schaubroeck (2007), creative work involvement is important to employee to create achievements and innovation. Involvement in a task can make people think that they are important, they will have the sense of commitment and ownership, therefore, they will delegate more to the task. In 3M, the role of employee is valued as a strategic partner, everyone has the responsibility for leadership and can empowered to act on the vision of the organisation, which have given the employees a sense of commitment that can, to a great extent, stimulate the them to work hard and be more innovative too. 6.3 Support and Space for Ideas Innovation is a time-consuming process (Fagerberg,et al 2006, p 349). Idea time and space give the people amount of time to think, plan, discuss or even test before having an action, which, to a great extent, foster new ideas within the working period. In a supportive climate, people can gain enough resources such as people, time, and money for innovative ideas. At the same time, they may realize there are values and respond to their creative potential and contributions so that they may exhibit higher levels of creative performance (Madjar et al 2002). Oldham and Cummings (1996) showed that supportiveness can significant enhance the creativity and contribute to the number of patent. A key strategy in 3M to allocate resources that allows staff to play with ideas with their own space and time. The 15 percent rule provides the staff in 3M with certain time and space in activities, which are not related to their current core business tasks. Some activities are curiosity-driven, which hav e sometimes resulted in breakthrough products such as the ever-popular Post-itÂÂ ®, which is the typical product initiated from the 15% rule. The development process in Google has a 70-20-10 rule. Google staff must spend 70% in the core business, the other 20% allow staff to roam free to encourage creativitywhere all the most interesting products emerge. The rest 10% is for crazy and radical ideas that might not work out but feel worth pursuing. 6.4 Conflict and Debate Conflict concern more about the relationships between people in an organisation, and debate focused on issues and ideas (Tidd Bessant 2009). Some researchers such as Moscovici (1980) and Nemeth Nemeth-Brown (2003) have stressed the value of conflict in that it can provoke people to think and find out creative or new viable solutions. More creative ideas can be stimulated by encouraging debates or even criticisms (Nemeth et al, 2004). Adequate conflict and debate can help company to create new capabilities by gathering diverse ideas that reflect multiple opinions to generate new options which could help company out of the old practices (Mitchell 2009). In a conflicting climate, people may be driven to strive finding the argument to support his or her own position, therefore, they need to concern the all-around of his or her opinion, or otherwise, they will lose their argument. However, the conflict and debate only can be effective in an organisation with open and collaborative clima te; otherwise, the conflict and debate will generate negative effect such as personal insult and attack (Tidd Bessant, 2009). 3M has recognized the utility of conflict in organisation can help creative thinking. In 3M, once an innovative idea came out, a conflict-free gestation and critical discussion are necessary before it is turned into an actual business product. 6.5 Risk Taking Risk taking refers to the tolerance of uncertainty and unknown situation in an organisation (Tidd Bessant, 2009). Risking-taking is one of the important ways to creative performance, because it can make good use of the opportunities for creativity-relevant resources on experiments, without experimenting things, there will be no inventions. In an organisation with high risk-taking culture, people will be rather free to try their new ideas without fear of the possible failure and they are more willing to express their new ideas freely in the first place (Tidd Bessant, 2009). 3M explicitly implements the strategy to encourage risk-taking and accept mistakes. They value employees who take wise and reasonable risks that helps to keep 3M business viable. 3M encourages employees to focus on solutions rather than placing blame. Under the risk-taking valued climate supported by the leadership, many employees are taking the initiatives, which constantly contribute to the boost of business gr owth of 3M. Dave Girouard, the President of Enterprise of Google, concedes that not every idea may bear fruit, but says there is an internal formula to assess new ideas. Google has a 70/20/10 model, which is 70 per cent of staff efforts are to be focused on core business, 20 per cent of staff efforts should be focused on related but new areas, and the rest of 10 per cent of staff efforts should reserve for radical ideas, some of which may turn into great advancements and many of which may not even be workable at all. The above examples of tolerance of wasting company resources on innovative activities, are considered to be successful only with the full supports by innovative leadership, otherwise, a company will never justify wasting resources on non-workable ideas. Only when the leadership is willing to take such risk, then those innovative processes will be allowed in an organisation in the first place. It should be emphasized that risk-taking has to be performed in a climate with full extent of openness and trust, where staff dare to try new things without the fear of punishment for the failure, or possible defeats and wastes (eg. money, time) during the risk-taking process. 6.6 Freedom Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) state that freedom means allowing people to use their own consideration to evaluate and respond to particular event and situation during the activities of product and process developments. The freedom in an organisation, concerns whether an organisation can allow its people to decide the process to achieve the specific objectives. Creativity is a result of people where they are free to decide what technique they will use to reach the particular task. This will encourage a sense of motivation to create an ownership of what has been created. Larry Page and Sergey Brin, co-founders of Google Inc, fundamentally believethat staff working on what they choose to work on, what theyre passionate about, have higher productivity than someone, whom is being directed and told what to do. It is a very central motto of innovation at Google. 7. Conclusion Just as the Apple CEO Steve Jobs said, innovation is about the peopleand how youre led. People are the key assets to an innovative organisation. No matter the size of a company, leadership is vital. Without a good leadership, an organisation will fall into chaos. Poor leaderships will have adverse effects on an organisation. Talent is scarce and creative people are highly in demand. Innovative leadership integrates innovation processes with talented people, in another word, to change organisation climate and deploy people to facilitate innovation in organisations through behaviours of leadership, by various leadership styles, or leadership priorities. Being visionary is a typical behaviour of an innovative leader. Innovation leader always has some visions of lifting up prospects of an organisation. In this sense, innovative leaders are necessarily innovators, who facilitate inventions to materialize their visions of better prospect of an organisation. Creating visionary strategy is t he fundamental task for an innovative leader that can guide the followers to think and behave in the right direction and can give the organisation a specific goal to achieve. It is up to the innovative leader to set clear and common goals. The defined goals must be unequivocally presented to the followers. An innovative leadership should have a quality of communication and more skills to manoeuvre within an organisation to create a favourable climate for innovation to strengthen the leadership itself. In other words, an innovation leader must be a good communicator, who can get his message across to his/her followers and motivate them to achieve common objectives through some creative processes. To promote innovation within an organisation, the leadership has to facilitate innovations among its people based on trust, support, openness, and risk taking. Since everyone has freedom to express ideas, it is unavoidable to have conflict between leadership and employees. Innovative leaders hip should be capable in turning debates to stimulation of innovative ideas and thoughts, at the same time, preventing and protecting employees from personal abuses. By doing things differently or in an unconventional way, an innovation organisation truly differs from other ordinary organisations. It is an encouragement for the followers that if the leaders behaviour is innovative. Within a group of people, most people imitate the behaviours of their leaders. The linkage between the role model and followers creativity is that the more creative behaviours the leader performs, the more creative their follower can produce in return. The successful innovations will also bind more followers to the leadership because of its respective contributions for innovation, or in other words, to encourage the innovation leadership and the innovative organisation to seek more innovative successes in the future. This cycle will further enhance intrinsic organisational climate for more innovations in order to facilitate competitive advantage and sustainable growth for the innovative organisation. References: Ashforth, B.E., Humphrey, R.H.,(1995). Emotions; Organisational-behavior; a reappraisal, Human Relations 48 (1995), pp. 97-125 Ashkanasy, N.M., Wilderom, C.P.M., Peterson. M.F. (2000). Handbook of Organisational Culture Climate. London, Sage publications, Inc. Bass, B. M. Riggio, R. E., (2008). Transformational leadership. New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc Carmeli, A., Schaubroeck, J., (2007). The influence of leaders and other refer

Family and Household Essay -- essays research papers fc

Family and Household   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The word family comes from the Latin word familia which means household. This seems to be fitting since they both seem synonymous. In the dictionary the definition of family is a group of individuals living under one roof and usually under one head or a group of persons of common ancestry. The definition of household is those who dwell under the same roof and compose a family or a social unit comprised of those living together in the same dwelling. Even the definitions are very similar, yet they have come to mean two very different things in our modern day world. As time evolves so does the clarity of what makes up a family and the function of family and household are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Families are affected by, and in turn affect, the values and structure of the society, in which they are embedded† (Haviland 2002: 245). This statement says so much about what families are and why they differ so much from one culture to the next. They fill the needs of each particular group. In America the â€Å"family† has changed dramatically over the past few decades as the country, itself, has changed. In the 1950’s and sixties the roles of each member of the family were more distinct and defined. The mother and the father were a married couple who stayed together. The mother did not work outside of the home, except in extreme circumstances or cases. She took care of the children and the home. The father was the â€Å"bread winner† and did very little work inside the home. Today most families either have both parents working or they are single parent families, or families divided by divorce. The changes to what comprises our f amilies have also evolved to included families with gay parents; having either two mothers or two fathers or combined families from re-marriages with step-parents and siblings. In these families their function is one of raising independent children who will grow up to become better than the generation before them. And in many cases they also function as an emotional and monetary support for each other; helping each other to obtain their goals of independence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In many other cultures their definition of what a family is very different of that of Americans. In most of these cultures family provides a more important role, one of survival. These family groups usually co... ...alue along with what is irrelevant. Our families provide us with the necessary tools to survive and keep our people going from one generation to the next. I have learned that the definitions of family and household are broad and diverse and that to know one does not mean you know another. What makes up either one of these two things is all about the culture and the society that we live in. But, it also made me realize that no matter how divergent our families and households are they all seem to fulfill the same basic need of survival. We just go about it in different ways. So, no matter where you live or who you live with you are still just learning how to live and that is what we all have in common.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Abrams, I.R., & Bishop, J. (Producers). (1994). â€Å"Family and Household,† Faces   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  of Culture [videotape]. Fountain Valley: Coast Community College   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  District. Haviland, William A. (2002) Cultural Anthropology. Forth Worth: Harcourt   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  College Publishers.

Does Shakespeare successfully present Henry V Essay

My interpretation of a hero is somebody who is sincere and caring. They must be polite and well mannered. Someone who is strong and has a strong will in a tough situation. A person who is heroic, fearless, brave and courageous all rolled into one. A person who isn’t afraid to say what they believe in. They must be confident and determined to follow something through to the very end and to fight for what is theirs. A person who is a good speaker and can put their point across to an audience. They must be prepared to make sacrifices as part of their job. Although all of the above things are important attributes of a hero I think there are two more important attributes. The first is to be loyal. To be loyal to your friends, family and country. Without loyalty there can never be trust. The second is the ability to change. To realise there is something wrong with you or your attitude and to do something about it. Ely and Canterbury talk about one of these attributes in Act one Scene one of the play. The ability to change. Shakespeare writes about one of the main attributes of a hero in the very first scene. When Canterbury looks back on the prospect of Henry being a King he says that, â€Å"The courses of his youth promised it not. † Canterbury believes this because as a youth, â€Å"His companies unlettered, rude and shallow, His hours filled up with riots, banquets, sports, And never noted him any study. † As Henry grows older though, â€Å"never was such a sudden scholar made. † Henry changes because he knew he had to. That takes determination and courage. No matter what anyone said he followed it through and did what he had to do. In the very first scene of the play Henry is already being talked about before we have even met him. Shakespeare has done this because he is giving Henry a real hero’s entrance, just like in any good film, he is telling the audience who he is and what he does. Canterbury and Ely are setting the scene and trying to make his entrance seem dramatic. Shakespeare does this to tell the audience that Henry is a well-known and well-talked about person. In other words Shakespeare is showing the audience that Henry is powerful. In Act one Scene two Henry is introduced to us for the first time. A first impression of him would be that he is very diplomatic and polite. â€Å"Sure, we thank you. My learned lord, we pray you to proceed. † Later on in the scene though, when the French challenge him he does not turn it down. Henry is pondering whether to stake a claim to the French throne. When he is sent a mocking gift of, â€Å"Tennis balls, my liege. † He acts on his instincts and declares war on France. This is very brave because it leaves him open to criticism and it could turn out to be the wrong decision. In Act two Scene two Henry finds out that three of his lords, and friends, are â€Å"traitors. † He is upset by this, â€Å"What shall I say to thee, Lord Scroop, thou cruel, Ingrateful, savage and inhuman creature? † Although they are his friends he knows that he must, â€Å"Arrest them to answer to the law. † They are his friends but like any hero he must make sacrifices. Being a hero isn’t just about fighting or being brave it’s also about thinking about and helping others. In Act three Scene one Shakespeare shows Henry giving a moving speech to his soldiers outside the walls of Harfleur. â€Å"Once more unto the breach, dear friends†¦ On, on you noble English†¦ Be copy now to men of grosser blood, And teach them how to war†¦ Cry ‘God for Harry, England and Saint George! † Henry just doesn’t go into battle and expect everybody to win. He knows how they must be feeling and he tries to encourage them. Henry also demonstrates that he is willing to do everything that his job entails. Shakespeare shows the audience another heroic quality by, instead of sending one of Henrys soldiers to do something for him, he writes it so that Henry does it himself. This is shown in Act three Scene four when he says, â€Å"How yet resolves the governor of the town? This is the latest parle we will admit, Therefore to our best mercy give yourselves. † Henrys strong words push the Governor of Harfleur to give in. As soon as Henry and his army are let into Harfleur he is showing good initiative by already thinking about the next stage, â€Å"Upon the soldiers, we will retire to Calais. † Shakespeare shows the audience again of Henrys heroism by showing us he can be polite and that he has good manners. â€Å"How now, Llewellyn? Camest thou from the bridge? † Although Henry is like a friend to his soldiers, just like a hero Shakespeare shows us that Henry must face up to his responsibilities. Bardolph has been caught stealing and he says, â€Å"We would have all such offenders so cut off†¦ in our marches through the country there be nothing compelled from the villages. † Even though things aren’t going as well as they should be Henry doesn’t give up. In response to Montjoys offer for him to name his ransom he says, â€Å"†¦ My army but a weak and sickly guard. Yet, God before, tell him we will come on Through France himself and such another neighbour stand in our way. † Yet again in this extract of a speech Henry shows his strong beliefs in God. All of the above quotations came from Act three scene seven. Shakespeare makes the play very dramatic by using a chorus at the beginning of every act. These are very effective because it gives the audience a taster of what is going to happen but not enough to explain the act fully. This means that the audience want to know what is going to happen and when something does happen it makes it all the more dramatic. In Act four Scene one Shakespeare presents us the audience, with Henry’s many heroic qualities. Not showing any signs of worry or weariness he tries his best to raise the morale of his soldiers. â€Å"†¦ There is some soul of goodness in things evil†¦ For our bad neighbour makes us early stirrers, Which is both healthful and good husbandry. † Henry also shows us like any hero or any person that he has feelings. He borrows a cloak and walks around the camp asking people what they think of him. King: â€Å"Then you are a better man than the king. † Pistol: â€Å"the king’s a bawock and a heart of gold, a lad of life, an imp of fame, of parents good, of fist most valiant. † Later on in an argument (while in disguise) with Bates Henry stresses, â€Å"†¦ I think the king is but a man as I am. The violet smells to him as it doth to me. † Shakespeare shows the audience that Henry has a different side to his personality, he is caring and understanding. â€Å"Rather proclaim it, Westmorland, though my host That he which hath no stomach to this fight Let him depart. † He then shows us that he isn’t just all talk and that he is brave by saying, â€Å"We few, we happy few, we band of brothers-For he today that sheds his blood with me Shall be my brother. † Henry again refers back to his belief in God by saying, â€Å"Take it, brave York. Now soldiers, march away, And how Thou pleasest, God, dispose the day. † He shows us this in Act four Scene three. You know when someone is a real hero because another person compares him or her to an already famous hero. Shakespeare does this in Act four Scene seven when Llewellyn compares Henry to Alexander, â€Å"†¦ If you mark Alexander’s life well, Harry of Monmouth’s life is come after it in incident well. † Later on Henry shows again that he does have feelings. All of the boys guarding the luggage have been killed, â€Å"I was not angry since I came to France Until this instant. † When Henry knows that they have won the battle he is not boastful; this is another great attribute of a hero shown very clearly to the audience by Shakespeare. Instead he says, â€Å"Praised be God, and not our strength, for it. † He then shows that he is not afraid to show everybody his roots. â€Å"I wear it for a memorable honour, For I am Welsh, you know, good countryman. † Even though he is enjoying the moment of winning he has to get on with his job, â€Å"Bring me just notice of the numbers dead On both our parts. † Once again Henry refers to God, â€Å"To boast of this, or to take that praise from God, Which is His only†¦ but with this acknowledgement, That God fought for us. † During the battle Shakespeare uses another dramatic device by using very short scenes whilst everyone is fighting. This means that everything is constantly changing and the audience doesn’t know what is going to happen next. It also builds up tension because Shakespeare is moving from one camp to the next. One minute you are in the French camp then the next you are in the English camp. After winning the battle Henry has to get back to his duties as king. Shakespeare shows the audience this side of Henry to show us that he is not just wrapped up in the glory of winning, he instead shows us that he is a true hero and still will face up to his responsibilities. â€Å"Peace to this meeting, wherefor we are met. † He then shows that a hero is just like any other man by trying to court the French king’s daughter, Katherine. â€Å"Fair Katherine†¦ if you will love me soundly with your French heart I will be glad to hear you confess it brokenly with your English tongue†¦ An angel is like you†¦ And therefore tell me, most fair Katherine, will you have me? † After agreeing the peace treaty Henry says, â€Å"prepare we for our marriage † The above quotations were taken from Act Five Scene Two. Overall I think Shakespeare has been very successful in presenting Henry as a hero. He is everything a hero could be. He has shown the audience that a hero could be sitting amongst them, that a hero is just an ordinary man or woman. The audience can relate to this because one day they themselves know that they could be a hero. I also think that the play was more effective in Elizabethan times than it is now. This is because when Shakespeare wrote this particular play Queen Elizabeth was coming to the end of a very successful rein and she had no one to succeed her. The Elizabethan community were very worried that there wouldn’t be anybody as good to take over, especially not a man. Shakespeare then wrote this play showing a truly heroic, male King. This raised the hopes of the Elizabethan people and made the play much more effective and much more popular.

Measuring Crime Essay

There are two different instruments used in reporting crime. There are also major crimes reporting program used in the United States. These major crime reporting programs do have a purpose and does give statistical information on crime in the United States. There are a difference between crime rates, arrest rates, clearance rates, and recidivism rates. The information reported about crime rates can be misleading and give inaccurate information about the crime rate in the United States. Crime and recidivism statistics can both give some important about crime in the United States. Instruments used to measure crime There are different ways that crime is reported in the United States. The media reports crime and influence society perception of crime (Schmalleger, 2011). This sometimes causes public opinion on crime unrealistic (Schmalleger, 2011). Statistic data provides a better view on the amount of crime occurring than what is reported by the news media. The statistic reports are not as accurate as society would want, but it still gives a better understanding of the amount of crimes, types of crimes and also the frequency of those crimes than the news media. People who are the victims of a crime are the ones who report the crime and allow the crimes to be placed in a crime database (Schmalleger, 2011). Major crime reporting programs The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) are the two major reporting of crime programs used in reporting crime in the United States (Schmalleger, 2011). Crime is computed by adding the major crimes reported to the police. The police report these crimes to the F.B.I who publishes the findings in the UCR. The UCR provides an annual report of incidents and rate of the reported crime that occurs throughout the United States (Schmalleger, 2011). The UCR program created a crime index to create a comparison over time. The index contains seven major offenses. These offenses are robbery, murder, forcible rape, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft gives the result of crime based on the population (Schmalleger, 2011). The UCR also reports victimless crimes to the F.B.I. The NCVS is designed to report an estimate occurrence of all crimes in the United States (Schmalleger, 2011). The NCVS shows the amount of different victimized crimes not reported to the law enforcement. NCVS provides information about crimes collected from individuals and households, who have suffered from crimes whether the crimes have been reported or not to authorities (Schmalleger, 2011). Both UCR and NCVS serve the same purpose. This purpose is to report and keep track of the crime reported in the United States each year to law enforcement agencies (Schmalleger, 2011). It is a way of keeping crime statistics so law enforcement agencies can develop ways to manage crime in different areas. These reports also provide the areas where crime rates are higher than other and what type of crimes are high in a certain area. Crime rates, arrest rates, clearance rates, and recidivism rates Crime rates and arrest rates are difficult for a law enforcement agency to produce to the high volume of calls received. Some examples of calls that do not require an arrest include lost pets, individuals needing medical assistance, and noise complaints. Each agency must make an organized effort to make contact with the individuals making the calls with high and low priority due to the unseen or unreported information at the caller’s location. The law enforcement community has also created an organization devoted to crime reports known as the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) data is based on law enforcement agencies (Schmalleger, F. 2011, p. 3). Clearance rates are defined as cases that have been solved. Many times if an arrest was made then the case has been cleared. Some case are never cleared one example, if an offender commits a murder and he or she is found dead or flees the country before an arrest is made the data does not go into the cleared category. Recidivism rates are directly related to the quality of life after an offender is released from prison. Many offenders repeat crime related offenses due to the addiction of drugs. At times serious pathological offenders create a threat to the community therefore recidivism rates are often used in determining the punishment required for the offender. Myth v. Reality Crime rates can be deceiving according to information form (Criminal Justice Video, 2013). Crime rates are based on different factors including the type of crime, the type of offender, also the place a crime is committed. In late 1990’s property crimes had decreased, today property crimes are suspected to rise due to a slow economy. Another factor leading to the deception of crime rates is based on the type of offender; including the increase of juvenile crime. Also affecting the crime rate according to Criminal Justice Video, (2013) are change in policies and mandatory laws that take effect. Crime rates relate to arrest rates in the fact that both are based on the unit of the population; per 100,000 of the population, Schmalleger, F. (2011). The crime index is a tool used to determine the amount of crime in an area; the index is effective however, it does not provide accurate numbers of crime committed. Updated Uniform Crime Reporting, (UCR) programs can help support the number of crimes committed also helps determine the types of crime. One solution for correlation between crime rates, arrest rates, and clearance rates can be to keep data updated. Updated data is the reporting of all arrests, and criminal behaviors also dropped charges. If data is continually up dated a system can be used to compare information on specific crimes helping to determine different aspects of crimes and arrests. Crime and recidivism statistics Crime rates did increased since the early 1970’s in many major states as the baby boomers became young adults. Most crime are being committed by today’s young males because of the higher population, the best way to eliminate crime is the eliminate poverty, because poverty breeds crime. Crime is very high in African –Americans due to they are unemployed or being a single parent and doing what he/she has to do to survive or provide for their families. The crimes that are committed by the young adults may have been seen as a child while they were growing up or maybe that is what they were taught to do. It is estimated that sociopaths who are prone to commit crimes, because they are incapable of feeling remorse or empathize with other’s pain, comprise about 3-4% of the male population, and between 33% and 80% of chronic criminals offenders. Some females may shoplift to support their drug habit, and this means that everyone is a victim especially their family members. Conclusion Although there may be changes of crime statistics but not changes in the crime rate, crime can be measured in numerous ways because of all of the numerous ways crime can be measured. The National Crime Victimization Survey and Uniform Crime Reports are both reliable systems but still leave the â€Å"dark figure of crime† because of the crimes that go unreported. Reference Criminal Justice Video, (2013). Myth v. Reality. Pearson Custom Publishing Retrieved from: http://media.pearsoncmg.com/pcp/pcp_94869_mutchnick_cj_uop/chapter1/ch1_mvr/index.html Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminal justice today: An introductory text for the 21st century (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Not Too Modest Purposal essays

Not Too Modest Purposal essays Racism is the combination of racial prejudice and power. Where most people look at racism as a kind of ugly brand of racial prejudice, we use this definition because it more accurately addresses the problems of race inequity in our country today. The biggest problem between the races right now is that the majority group has succeeded in keeping its economic and political power and not allowing other groups to share it. Therefore, the problem we must address is how to go about sharing power and dismantling systems, which perpetuate our social inequities. These inequities include a vast difference in income, education, life expectancy, and so on. These are the strongest evidence of racism in our country that have allowed our society to continue to have mostly segregated neighborhoods, segregated classrooms if not segregated schools, segregated churches, and segregated social institutions. Now I propose a solution that I am assured will come to pass as a new and more safer way of life for all Americans. This new structured lifestyle that all will eventually succumb to will provide those individuals the ease and comfort in which all can exist in this country. As I have mentioned above this country is mostly segregated, so why dont we complete the process and segregate all of the country. Its simply really; by segregating the country into different categories, first primarily on race, we can then generalize income, life expectancies, education, and political power. The separation of classes, or races, will in return bring a hormonal life style to those that live within those barriers or regions. This separation of certain people can help bring people with the similar problems closer together. By sharing the similar problems a society of people can overcome obstacles that would not be possible in a desegregated society. The society of people share the same weaknesses and strengths, so together they can make themselves s...

Making Phone Calls in German-Speaking Countries

Making Phone Calls in German-Speaking Countries Gone are the days when most European countries had one state monopoly phone company run by the post office- the former PTT: Post, Telefon, Telegraf. Things have changed! Although the former German monopoly Deutsche Telekom is still dominant, German homes and businesses can now select from a variety of phone companies. On the street you see people walking around with their Handys (cell/mobile phones). This article deals with several aspects of using a telephone in German: (1) practical Telefon how-tos, (2) vocabulary related to the equipment and telecommunications in general, and (3) expressions and vocabulary concerning good phone etiquette and making yourself understood on the phone, along with our annotated English-German Telephone Glossary. Talking on the phone is an important skill for English-speakers in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, or anyone who needs to make a long-distance call (ein Ferngesprch) to a German-speaking country. But just because you know how to use a telephone at home doesnt necessarily mean youre ready to cope with a public phone in Germany. An American business person who is quite capable of handling any business situation can quickly be at a loss in an unfamilar German telephone booth/box (die Telefonzelle). But, you say, anyone I want to call probably has a cell phone anyway. Well, you better have the right Handy or youre out of luck. Most U.S. wireless phones are useless in Europe or just about anywhere outside of North America. Youll need a multi-band GSM-compatible phone. (If you dont know what GSM or multi-band means, see our GSM phone page for more about using ein Handy in Europe.) A German or Austrian public phone can be confusing if youve never seen one before.  Just to complicate matters more, some public phones are coin-only, while others are phone card-only. (European phone cards are so-called smart cards that keep track of a cards remaining value as its used.) On top of that, some phones at German airports are credit card phones that take Visa or Mastercard. And, of course, a German phone card wont work in an Austrian card phone or vice versa. Just knowing how to say Hello! on the phone is an important social and business skill. In Germany you usually answer the phone by saying your last name. German phone subscribers must pay per-minute charges for all calls, including even local calls (das Ortsgesprch). This explains why Germans dont spend as much time on the phone as most Americans. Students staying with a host family need to know that even when they call a friend in the same town or across the street, they shouldnt talk for long stretches like they may at home. Using the telephone in a foreign country is an excellent example of how language and culture go together. If you dont know the vocabulary involved, thats a problem. But if you are unfamiliar with how the phone system works, thats also a problem- even if you know the vocabulary.

Assessment on English for Cambodian Textbook Uses

Assessment on English for Cambodian Textbook Uses The fall of the Pol Pot regime in 1979 contributed to a new step toward introducing new foreign languages-Vietnamese, and Russian, in Cambodian education system. However, at the end of cold war in late 1989, French and English were reintroduced once again at lower secondary school education after a long period of prohibition of teaching the two languages toward the end of Lon Nol regime in 1975 (Igawa, 2008). Although French and English have been taught ever since that time, English has become the first foreign language owing to the fact that there has been a switching allocation of language resources from French to English (Clayton, 2006). Since English becomes more and more influential language in Cambodia, high attention has been drawn to make this language more and more communicable among school girls and boys at basic education level from grade 7 to grade 12. Meanwhile, the main the purpose of Lower Secondary School (LSS) is to have students fully participate in the society and become a productive citizen. In this regard, the objective of teaching foreign language at that level is set to serve basic communicative competence for the students (MoYES, 2004). To serve the above objective, in Lower and Upper Secondary school levels from grade 7 to grade 12, MoEYS employs the book series named English for Cambodia to teach students, which was initially piloted in 1996-1997 academic year (MoEYS, 1999). Before the publication of English for Cambodia (EFC) series, many textbook series such as Headway, English for Today, and streamline, to name but a few, were utilized to teach Cambodian Secondary School students. Shortly after several projects had been conducted to develop an appropriate English textbook for Cambodia, EFC textbook series were published with six levels in which one level is confined for the whole academic year of each grade at both Lower and Upper Secondary schools in Cambodia (Vira, 2002). In grade 7, students are to take the first level of the bo ok named â€Å"English for Cambodia: Book 1†. The book is written in English including the explanatory part in the first section. The textbook content is organized on the grammar basis containing a number of chapters which each is subdivided into 4 or 3 units to explain the target grammar, some drills using the grammar, short dialogues with questions to check for comprehension, and reading texts. From the content, each chapter subsequently orientates students towards communicative goal (MoEYS, 1999). English for Cambodia, book one, was developed in forms of teacher’s guide and student book in respect to MoEYS Textbook Master Plan (1996) and cooperated with Cambodian research institutions. This textbook was designed on the basis of MoEYS English Syllabus for grade 7 students and accompanied by the teaching methodology developed by teacher trainers during training course for Lower Secondary English trainees. In particular, the main features of teaching methodology in thi s book is characterized as: enhancing 4 language skill practices namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing; practicing grammatical structure and vocabulary and introducing systematic and appropriate means of communicative language function; various effective teaching and learning technique presented in each unit; and regular interaction between students and teachers (MoEYS, 1999).

Protecting Intellectual Property Rights In Software Essay

Protecting Intellectual Property Rights In Software - Essay Example In addition, the rules which come under ‘intellectual property right’ offer various techniques for saving these rights of possession depending on their category. However, there are fundamentally 4 kinds of intellectual property rights which are applied to software, copyrights, patents, trademarks and trade secrets. Additionally, each type offers a specific legal defense. For instance, copyrights, patents and trade secrets are utilized to protect the technology itself. Moreover, trademarks do not protect technology; however they are used to protect symbols or names used to differentiate a product in the market (Freibrun, 2011; ZINNOV LLC, 2001; Locklizard, 2011). This paper outlines some of the important ways to protect intellectual property in software industry. This paper will discuss intellectual property rights which are used for software such as copyright, patent and trademark. Copyright Software copyright is a rule or regulation that affects anybody who makes use of a computer, and especially the companies; it is not rare for a company to face civil or yet illegal proceedings for software copyright violation. On the other hand, it is a difficult part of law that is not extensively recognized (Kerr, 2007; InnovAccess, 2009. In addition, software copyright is not fundamentally dissimilar from some other kinds of copyright. Though, there are specific scenario of copyright law that is explicit to software, for the reason that there are realistic dissimilarities among software as well as other aspects that can be copyrighted (poems, books, sculptures, drawings, etc.). Additionally, the copyright law offers a programmer (or in the scenario of a working programmer, that programmer's company) an extensive degree of power over the system/application/program that he or she develops. For instance, the proprietor of copyright in a part of computer software that has the right to stop others from making copies of the software, or some considerable fraction of the software, whether the copy right infringer creates the copy by pasting application on hard disk, floppy disk, CD ROM, or by printing out a hard copy of the code of the software (Kerr, 2007; InnovAccess, 2009). When somebody develops a unique piece of application/code/software, that individual then apply something known as copyright to that application. In addition, applying the copyright to application or software outlines that owner of that particular application has the security of the law thus nobody can attempt to take their software. Additionally, under copyright law, people are not allowed to: (Copley, 2011) Make a copy the application or software intended for other people Loan the software to some other individuals Offer the software on rent to other people Making an illegal installation of application on a network when other people are able to make use of its or access it Moreover, if somebody does not comply with the law or regulation of copyright, they could be pena lized with fines or even through imprisonment. The cause for this is that making software engages work of a lot of people and might take thousands of hours. It is simply fair that all this effort is protected (Copley, 2011). In this scenario, the US Copyright Office recognizes the software to be â€Å"a group of declarations or commands to be employed openly or not directly in a system to carry about a specific output.† However, copyright security is not implemented to thoughts, ideas, program logic, algorithms, techniques or layouts (ClickandCopyright, 2011). In addition, in software copyrights scenario the

Human Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Behaviour - Essay Example One might ant to cook in order to appease hunger or to gain compliments from a spouse or to save money which would have been spent ordering food. In keeping with this cause-effect relationship, it does seem very easy to advocate that yes, we only do what we want to do. There is a complication however, which might also be considered an exception; fear. One may also do an act out of fear of the consequences if it were not done. For instance, an all too common phenomenon is thousands of people trudging to their workplaces daily out of fear of being fired or the fear of their wages being cut, or fear of awaiting bills. One may cook at home, continuing from an above example, also out of fear of extra calories or germs that outside food may contain. In such cases, strictly speaking, the individual does not want to act, but does so, since not performing the act would result in an unpleasant situation. Another consideration when attempting to figure whether we do only what we want to do, is the conflict between rationale and emotion. As Hume states, "nothing is more usual in philosophy, and even in common life, than to talk of the combat of passion and reason." The concept of what one wants to do then, would fit into the realm of passion or emotion rather than logic or reason. Hume emphasizes that reason alone can never be a motive to any action, nor can it oppose action in the direction of the will. In fact, reason is simply the discovery of the link between a driving emotion and its eventual desired consequences. (Hume, 1882) It is the knowledge of the fact that a particular thing is desired and will be achieved if acted upon in a particular manner. Thus, if reason figures only as a connection and not a cause of action, and emotions translate as 'want to do', it is easily concluded that eventually we only do what we want to do. In any case, whatever the source of action, the individual's primary concern is a selfish one. Whether an action is performed to create a pleasant consequence or to avoid an unpleasant situation, the basic driving force is a self-centered one. This brings us to the second part of the essay - whether there exist any natural virtues, which do not depend upon consequences or convenience, but yet instigate one to act in a particular manner. Strict empirical scientists would say no; it does not make logical sense for people to utilize their energies and resources without any benefit. Furthermore, it goes contrary to the survival instinct which pushes one to behave so as to obtain maximum advantages. Added, such behaviour, which social scientists now recognize as altruism, if engaged in often enough and by too many people, would completely overhaul the wheels of societies and economies that are governed by gain oriented cause-effect relationships. James Fieser emphasizes that natural virtues, (which include benevolence, meekness, charity and generosity) "are instinctive character traits of the agent which give rise to passions which in turn motivate the will to action." (Fieser, 1997) Artificial virtues, which are learnt or developed include justice, keeping promises, allegiance and chastity, and are evident to different degrees in different people, as Hume professes. Since natural virtues are instinctive, they would also be common to all

Reflexivity in relation to anthropologicalethnographic filmmaking Essay

Reflexivity in relation to anthropologicalethnographic filmmaking - Essay Example The Ax Fight was originally created to show students the difficulty in placing a single point-of-view out of a certain field experience. The footages actualize the teaching process and problematize the translation from one cultural experience to another cultural idiom, within which the anthropologist often condenses, analyzes and-makes intellectual models (Ennis, Asch, 1). In the first unedited section of the film all the events are presented and the sound continues even after the film goes dark and the comments of Chagnon, Asch and Johnson are just heard. In the second part, Napoleon Chagnon explains the socio-political significance of the fighter's behavior. The third part, delves more into the socio-cultural complications of the village people. The final section is an edited version. Timothy wanted his students to understand the shortcoming of a film that is has smooth editing and fibula structure like the Nanook of the North. Films like The Ax Fight show how an intellectual inter vention influences an onlooker. The film is also a direct criticism of the inconsistencies of spectatorship and how the desired effect in understanding is achieved by a good filmmaker. Contrary to pre-disposed notions in science and filmmaking, anthropological faithfulness to observation of another culture cannot ever be beyond bias, unless reflexivity is used to both question that objectivity and nurture mental exercise within the spectators. Anthropological filmmaking combines two processes together. One is the filming process and the other is social science. The balance is crucial since science and art clash headlong. The frame within the camera may help to communicate cultural conditions and also further Western knowledge of the "Other", but a culture cannot be completely understood just by introducing a non-fictional narrative as Flaherty does. The limitations are numerous. First, a narrative forces the plot of the actual observation towards a composition of a fiction. Flaherty wanted to manipulate viewers understanding of the biography of Nanook and not further any racist understanding of the Eskimo culture. But with Timothy Asch reflexivity is the first sta nce to question the all-understanding nature of the anthropologist. He wanted to keep certain signs and their nature open to critical interpretation and never risk a comfortable lapse leading to an acceptance from his audience. The conscious effort to keep the audience visually uncomfortable while watching the fight makes the confrontation of inter-cultural experience more critical. Accumulation of data, the process of accumulating it, narration, and little editing of the film may help the nature of critical viewership and gives minimum control to the maker. Timothy and Chagnon relinquish all control of their point-of-view and plunges their own spectatorship with that of the audience in such a way so that it becomes impossible to neglect the cultural and ideological subjectivity of the anthropologists. The students are left to situate the filmed observations within the sphere of public and uniform scientific study. The anthropologists become a part of the study themselves since their psychological perspectives are of profound value in regard to the choice of the subject itself. Human recording of another human behavior is the proper subject of postmodern dialogism. The indefinite and inadequate interplay of

Article analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Article analysis - Essay Example The oil producers in the U.A.E. are expected to increase production of oil as a response to this fall (Cornwell, 2014). This reaction of the government is contrary to the conventional economic theory which states that if the price falls then the suppliers should reduce the level of their production. But this is not happening in case of the U.A.E. The economic theory of demand and supply fundamentally states that as price of a product increases less and less quantity of the product is demanded and as the price of a product rises then its supply increases. The equilibrium market price is determined by the point where the quantity demanded by the consumers equals to the quantity supplied by the producers (Frank, 2008). The following diagram shows the same. The initial equilibrium point is marked by E1 and the initial equilibrium price is P1 and the quantity demanded is Q1. A fall in the market demand due to exogenous market conditions like recessions or weak demand of the products causes the price to fall and the demand curve shifts to DD2 where the new quantity is Q2 and the price falls to P2 (Frank, 2008). Following this theory it should be expected that a global fall in prices would discourage the suppliers and they should reduce their production. However, according to the news article this is unlikely to happen. U.A.E. is expected to produce 3 million barrels of oil by the end of the current financial year. According to experts factors like weaker growth of China, rise in shale production in the U.S.A. and oversupply of oil are the main factors that are responsible for the global fall in oil process. A fall in the global oil prices could be represented by a downward shift in the demand curve from point DD1 to DD2 where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. The new equilibrium point is reached at E2. However, the determination of oil production in the global economy does not follow the cardinal

Important Models of Justices' Behaviour at the Supreme Court Research Paper

Important Models of Justices' Behaviour at the Supreme Court - Research Paper Example There are three models that are mostly displayed by the justices and the judges of the Supreme Court when deciding cases in the supreme courts. These are strategic, attitudinal and the legal orientations. Strategic behaviour refers to the justices’ actions to maximize their overall benefits in light of their expectations concerning their choices of other actors involved in the decision making process. Others are legal and the attitudinal models that aid explain the legal verdict arrived by the justices at the supreme courts Though the attitudinal models of justice behaviour was initially establish in the US, students and other legal practitioner have found the strategic models of behaviour alluring. This dissent of behaviour focuses on the interpedently nature of judges and justices’ behaviour in their decision making, which does not shun the policy preferences of the justices’ .This a strategic begins with assumption that justices are motivated by their policy p references, but further acknowledges that realization of those preferences is a function of other relevant actors. As notes by (Epstein and Knight) Justices may be primarily seekers of legal policy, but they are not unconstrained actors who make decisions based only on their own ideological attitudes. Rather, justices are strategic actors who realize their ability to achieve their goals depends on a consideration of the preferences of other actors, the choices they expect others to make, and the institutional context in which they act. (10). This implies that whole a justice acting on the basis of his attitudes, another justices acting on the same preferences may be expected to behave differently based on strategic considerations. For instance, for justice behaviour‘s preferences mat depend on the other justice and judges reactions and opinions (08-956 wood v. Allen. (01/20/10) Recent literature provides that strategic concerns of behaviour go beyond attitudinal as they tend t o explain further other reasons that attitudinal approach may not offer.(Wood v. Allen, Wood v, state and Alabama, US, 1998) In recent findings, attitudinal concerns have challenged by judges who tend to adopt strategic orientation towards and it was evidenced in a variety of contexts. First, when setting their agendas (Rice v. Collins, 546 US 333,339), second, when writing majority opinions (Wood v. State, 715 819 (1998)) and lastly issuing separate opinions, even on the same case(s) (Williams v. Taylor, 529 US 362,462). Several studies undertaken by Brace and Hall at the aggregate (Brace and Hall; Hall and Brace, 147-162) and individuals (Brace and Hall; Hall and Brace) provides explanations on the dissenting behaviour. They note that when making judicial decisions, justices and judges decide not to follow their ideological differences in certain circumstances in anticipation of decisions by exogenous factors such as electoral constituency, in order to keep job . Other evidence th at pursue a strategic line of inquiry as is vital in the decision making process. This is because the strategic models of supreme court justices takes into account other factors more

Reflexivity in relation to anthropologicalethnographic filmmaking Essay

Reflexivity in relation to anthropologicalethnographic filmmaking - Essay Example The Ax Fight was originally created to show students the difficulty in placing a single point-of-view out of a certain field experience. The footages actualize the teaching process and problematize the translation from one cultural experience to another cultural idiom, within which the anthropologist often condenses, analyzes and-makes intellectual models (Ennis, Asch, 1). In the first unedited section of the film all the events are presented and the sound continues even after the film goes dark and the comments of Chagnon, Asch and Johnson are just heard. In the second part, Napoleon Chagnon explains the socio-political significance of the fighter's behavior. The third part, delves more into the socio-cultural complications of the village people. The final section is an edited version. Timothy wanted his students to understand the shortcoming of a film that is has smooth editing and fibula structure like the Nanook of the North. Films like The Ax Fight show how an intellectual inter vention influences an onlooker. The film is also a direct criticism of the inconsistencies of spectatorship and how the desired effect in understanding is achieved by a good filmmaker. Contrary to pre-disposed notions in science and filmmaking, anthropological faithfulness to observation of another culture cannot ever be beyond bias, unless reflexivity is used to both question that objectivity and nurture mental exercise within the spectators. Anthropological filmmaking combines two processes together. One is the filming process and the other is social science. The balance is crucial since science and art clash headlong. The frame within the camera may help to communicate cultural conditions and also further Western knowledge of the "Other", but a culture cannot be completely understood just by introducing a non-fictional narrative as Flaherty does. The limitations are numerous. First, a narrative forces the plot of the actual observation towards a composition of a fiction. Flaherty wanted to manipulate viewers understanding of the biography of Nanook and not further any racist understanding of the Eskimo culture. But with Timothy Asch reflexivity is the first sta nce to question the all-understanding nature of the anthropologist. He wanted to keep certain signs and their nature open to critical interpretation and never risk a comfortable lapse leading to an acceptance from his audience. The conscious effort to keep the audience visually uncomfortable while watching the fight makes the confrontation of inter-cultural experience more critical. Accumulation of data, the process of accumulating it, narration, and little editing of the film may help the nature of critical viewership and gives minimum control to the maker. Timothy and Chagnon relinquish all control of their point-of-view and plunges their own spectatorship with that of the audience in such a way so that it becomes impossible to neglect the cultural and ideological subjectivity of the anthropologists. The students are left to situate the filmed observations within the sphere of public and uniform scientific study. The anthropologists become a part of the study themselves since their psychological perspectives are of profound value in regard to the choice of the subject itself. Human recording of another human behavior is the proper subject of postmodern dialogism. The indefinite and inadequate interplay of

Important Models of Justices' Behaviour at the Supreme Court Research Paper

Important Models of Justices' Behaviour at the Supreme Court - Research Paper Example There are three models that are mostly displayed by the justices and the judges of the Supreme Court when deciding cases in the supreme courts. These are strategic, attitudinal and the legal orientations. Strategic behaviour refers to the justices’ actions to maximize their overall benefits in light of their expectations concerning their choices of other actors involved in the decision making process. Others are legal and the attitudinal models that aid explain the legal verdict arrived by the justices at the supreme courts Though the attitudinal models of justice behaviour was initially establish in the US, students and other legal practitioner have found the strategic models of behaviour alluring. This dissent of behaviour focuses on the interpedently nature of judges and justices’ behaviour in their decision making, which does not shun the policy preferences of the justices’ .This a strategic begins with assumption that justices are motivated by their policy p references, but further acknowledges that realization of those preferences is a function of other relevant actors. As notes by (Epstein and Knight) Justices may be primarily seekers of legal policy, but they are not unconstrained actors who make decisions based only on their own ideological attitudes. Rather, justices are strategic actors who realize their ability to achieve their goals depends on a consideration of the preferences of other actors, the choices they expect others to make, and the institutional context in which they act. (10). This implies that whole a justice acting on the basis of his attitudes, another justices acting on the same preferences may be expected to behave differently based on strategic considerations. For instance, for justice behaviour‘s preferences mat depend on the other justice and judges reactions and opinions (08-956 wood v. Allen. (01/20/10) Recent literature provides that strategic concerns of behaviour go beyond attitudinal as they tend t o explain further other reasons that attitudinal approach may not offer.(Wood v. Allen, Wood v, state and Alabama, US, 1998) In recent findings, attitudinal concerns have challenged by judges who tend to adopt strategic orientation towards and it was evidenced in a variety of contexts. First, when setting their agendas (Rice v. Collins, 546 US 333,339), second, when writing majority opinions (Wood v. State, 715 819 (1998)) and lastly issuing separate opinions, even on the same case(s) (Williams v. Taylor, 529 US 362,462). Several studies undertaken by Brace and Hall at the aggregate (Brace and Hall; Hall and Brace, 147-162) and individuals (Brace and Hall; Hall and Brace) provides explanations on the dissenting behaviour. They note that when making judicial decisions, justices and judges decide not to follow their ideological differences in certain circumstances in anticipation of decisions by exogenous factors such as electoral constituency, in order to keep job . Other evidence th at pursue a strategic line of inquiry as is vital in the decision making process. This is because the strategic models of supreme court justices takes into account other factors more

Complete Course Material Essay Example for Free

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Overview Of Aloe Vera

Overview Of Aloe Vera Aloe Vera is known as a TRUE ALOE. It is mostly used in herbal medicines so it is also known as FIRST AID PLANT or MEDICINAL PLANT. The ALOE word was derived from the aerobic word-alloeh which means BITTER SUSSTANCES. Aloe is an emollient resin with the softening properties. It belongs to family Liliaceae [1]. 1.1.1 HISTORY:- Aloe vera was considered to one of best medicinal plants used in the treatment of various health conditions. It was first understood by Egyptians to having multiple nature of it properties [19]. But Aloe Vera was first discovered in 1862 by German Egyptologist -George Fbers. But its first English translation was found in 1655 by John Goodyear in Dioscorider de materia medica, and he wrote aloe is very better in taste. Aloe Vera has been used by many different cultures: Indians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, have all used aloe Vera as a medicinal or healing plant. Botanists have find more than 300 species of aloe Vera like rumex, barbadensis etc. Out of this species, only five have strongest medical benefits likes Aloe barbadensis miller, Aloe perryi baker, Aloe ferox,Aloe saponaria , Aloe arborescens. Aloe barbadensis miller is mostly widely used and most potent as well. Throughout the history of aloe vera, the plant is in various form having tropical properties-refered as plant of immorality. It is belonging to lily family because flower produce annually in the spring which resembles of ester lily. [1-2]. 1.1.2 COMMON NAME:- Chinese aloe, True aloe, Indian aloe, First aid plant, Medicinal plant, Miracle plant ,Barbadose aloe, Burn aloe and many more [1]. 1.1.3 SCIENTIFIC NAME:- Aloe barbadensis, Aloe capensis [1]. 1.1.4 ALTERNATIVE NAME:- Aloe Vera has a different name in worldwide like, In India-Ghrtakumari But in Gujarat and Rajasthan its known as Gwarpatha,In Pakistan-quargandal which is used in unani medicine,In Indonesia-lidah buaya,In Thailand- crocodile tail plant,In south Africa-sabila [2]. 1.1.5 DESCRIPTION:- Aloe Vera grows in to the dreary climates or land. So it is mostly found in the India, Africa, Caribbean, and other dry climates. Aloe Vera is a short stem or stems less plant. It mainly contains leaves and flowers. Aloe leaves are in green in colour and thick with the same variety. The size of leaves is 50-60 cm long and 4-5 cm thick. The margin of the leaves is serrated. But plants bear flowers once in a year in summer season. Flowers contain tubular collar which is yellow in colour and contain aloe tic juice can be collected by cutting the leaves close to stem. The structure of aloe leaf shows an outer cortex which is hard duo to the present of calcium and magnesium. Tubes of xylem and phloem were found below the cortex and its supplied water and minerals to leaves [1]. 1.2 CHEMICAL CONSTITUTE:- Aloe Vera has weird medicinal properties. Botanists have found more than 200 important nutritional constituents in aloe Vera leaf which having to perform a function. They are MINERALS like Calcium, Sodium, Copper, Zinc, Iron, and Manganese (Essentials for bones, Regulates acidic or alkaline level of body fluid), VITAMINS like Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Vitamin B12, and Folic Acid(To develop new blood cells), ENZYMES like lipase, Peroxidise (Helps indigestion), SUGAR like Monosaccharides and polysaccharides include Sucrose, lactose(Maintain cholesterol level, Improve the strengthening of bones),LIGNINS which are the Cellular substances which hasnt medicinal benefits But it has an accessing property. AMINO ACID which are required by human body provided by aloe Vera like Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine, Theonine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylamine, STEROL like Camp sterol, sitosterol(Pain killing properties),ANTHRAQUINONES like Aloin, Anthranol, Aloetic acid, Barbaloin, Isobarbaloin and Aloe emodin Aloe emodine [4] Aloin [3] And OTHERS like Salicylic acid,Tannins,Monosulfonic acid, Acemannam,Water [1-2]. Aloes Vera mainly contain 96-99% of water and constitutes are in rare part. So its work in based on SYNERGISTIC ACTIONS which means working together of two or more substance and give greater action as compare to single substance. This phenomenon was explained by Dr.Atherton [1-2]. 1.3 CULTIVATION OF ALOE VERA [1-5]:- Aloe Vera grown commercially for its high demand in cosmetic industries and treatment of healing in India. It has medicinal properties due to its bitter taste. Aloe Vera grown in a rainless climates or land. Its cant stay in cold temperature. So it is grown in all part of South Africa and India like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and many more. Soil requirement for all species are coarse sandy loam soil with some fertility. In addition, it is noticed that its growth was easier and faster in black cotton soil in central India with the nearly by acidic ph. For the perfect growth of Aloe Vera, lane should not distribute below the level of 20-30cm. Aloe Vera need a flat land and should be exact level with 2-3 farming. Plant should plant with some distance because of irrigation. Distance between two fields was 10m X 3m. The proper time of suckers should be planted in month of July-August in monsoon season because suckers get proper water to grow up and survival. Suckers should have 3-4 mouth old having 3-4 leaves and 20-22 c long. About 30,000 suckers needed for one hectare planting. After planting suckers, soil around the root should press and waste must be made proper to avoid the sluggishness. Irrigation is necessary a critical stage to proper growth of plant. First irrigation is required after planting suckers followed by 4-6 per year which is reducing by every time. Weeding should be carried out after planting the plant and two or three weeding carried out throughout year. All the species of Aloe Vera are insusceptible to most of insects and pests from any part of county. But sometime bugs, leaves dots have been reported in some part of country because of light irrigation. Generally yield obtained from 2 to 5 year after plating. Average yield after 2 year is around 15-20 t/ha fresh leaves. Well managed irrigated crop give around 30-35 t/ha fresh leaves. Fully well developed leaves give an ALOE JUICE. After harvesting, marketing of Aloe Vera leaves is not fully developed in our country. 1.4 USES:- Aloe Vera is well known for its medicinal properties since centuries. The plant is able to cure a wide range of disease. The part of plant like leaves, leaf gel is used clinically. Some respective uses of Aloe Vera are (1) EXTERNAL USES-Use in treatment of burns, allergic reaction, wounds,acne,Rheumatoid arthritis, Rheumatic fever, Acid indigestion cuts, Inflammatory condition of digestive system, Sun burn ulcers, Kill mould,bacteria,viruses,fungus,Wrinkles etc (2)COMMERCIAL USE: Aloe Vera is widely use in cosmetics and many more like in ointments,pills,jelly,lotion,bevareges.as a foodstuff etc [1-6]. (3)MEDICINAL USE-They are Treatment of diabetes because it reduce blood sugar, Treatment of AIDS, Protect from lung cancer, Aloe juice is used for consumption issues, Prevent fungal infection, Prevent vaginal infection, Prevent scarring,Eczema,Constipation,Intestinal infection, Relieves from candiala,Treatment of hyperglycaemia, Maintain level of cholesterol, Injection of Aloe Vera extracts to treat cancer, Skin disorder. And some of general use like Antibacterial properties, Antifungal properties, and Prevent radiation induced injuries, Inhibit growth of streptococcus species in vitro [1-6]. 1.4.1 ALOE PREPARATIONS: some of the aloe preparation which are widely use like aloe vera shampoo, aloe vera lotion, aloe vera gel, aloe vera juice, aloe vera eating, aloe vera butter, aloe vera dried herbs powders, aloe vera shower gel, and aloe vera vegetarian capsules [1]. 1.4.2 SIDE EFFECT AND SAFETY PRECAUTION: Aloe Vera has a medicinal or healing properties, it does come with some disadvantage. Aloe Vera gel, aloe Vera cream does not having major side effect but other preparation like juice, shampoo butter, having certain impediment like, Diarrhea,Blood electrolyte imbalance, Constipation, Muscle weakness, Abnormal heart rhythms [7]. Aloe Vera injection is to be avoided because of having fatalities. It can cause death with cancer patients Aloe Vera should be avoided while pregnancy, children, breast feeding [7]. ALPHA-GLUCOSIDES INHIBITORS: 1.5 INTRODUCTION TO ALPHA-GLUCOSIDE ENZYME: It is a class of a medication for type-2 diabetes which decrease blood sugar level by decreasing carbohydrates from the intestinal. Discovery of alpha-glucosides inhibitors has been very useful to develop therapeutic for the treatment for the carbohydrate- mediated disease like diabetes. Two classes of drugs like glycosidase inhibitors and lipase inhibitors which lower blood glucose by changing the absorption level of fat and carbohydrates [8-9]. Alpha glucosides inhibitors like acarbose, miglitol, voglibose have been studies in Europe country but some of these are also available in united state [8]. Alpha -glucosidase inhibitors reduce the impact of carbohydrates blood sugar by inhibit the upper level of gastrointestinal [8]. 1.5.1 MECHANISM OF ACTION: Alpha glucosides inhibitors are competitive inhibitors of 1alpha glucosidase which are located in the brush border of small intestinal (epithelial cells). These inhibitors bind to the oligosaccharide binding site of the enzyme and delay digestion of polysaccharide resulting slow down food digestion in gut [10]. While the gastrointestinal tract dose not play a important role in the cure of diabetes, but changing its physiological activity can be used to control disease. In these case alpha-glucosides inhibitors are used. Alpha glucosides delay digestion of carbohydrates by hydrolyses of oligosaccharides into monosaccharide. Alpha glucosidase inhibitors can be used to reduce glycemic excussions and hypoglycaemia having type-1 diabetes. Moreover it is used in the treatment of patients with type-2 diabetes and its decrease plasma triglyceride [11]. Alpha glucosides inhibitors have evidence helpful for the people with diabetes who havent able to keep their blood sugar level within a safe range. In such case inhibitors like acarbose and miglitol help to keep the blood sugar level in safe range by slowing a rate of intestinal which absorbed sugar from blood while eating. These inhibitors can cause low blood sugar while used in combination with other medication for diabetes or with insulin. Diabetic people who are regularly using insulin but once they are use alpha glucosidase inhibitors than they reduce use of insulin [12]. CHAPTER- 2 HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY. 2.1 INTRODUCTION: Chromatography is the separation of a mixture into single components by using mobile and stationary phase. High performance liquid chromatography is widely use in analytical chemistry and industrial level to identify components. It is one of the fastest growing techniques in pharmaceutical industry for analysis of mixture os substance. It is also knows as high pressure liquid chromatography. It is a high improved as compare to column chromatography. Smaller particle size cans (3-20ÂÂ µ) be analysed by hplc and allows much better separation of a components. Detection method is used in hplc which are highly automated and extremely sensitive as compare to column chromatography [13-14]. Some of the advantage over column chromatography is, (a) small stationary phase are used with widely range available, (b) column which are used in hplc which are made up of metal and small in size so no fear to breakage, (c) hplc is available in analytical and preparative scale. But some of disadvantage over column chromatography like cost of equipment is high so handle with care, operating pressure is high (500-3000 psi)[14]. Basic principle is base on adsorption. When a mixture of components is introduced in to column, they are travel according to their affinity. The components which has a more affinity towards adsorbent, travel slower and vice versa [14]. ÂÂ ®NORMAL PHASE HPLC: Here, stationary phase is polar in nature and mobile phase is non polar in nature. In this method non polar components eluted first because of less affinity. The column is fitted with a silica gel and hexane used as a solvent. Column length is 150-250 mm and less than 4.6 mm diameter [13-14]. ÂÂ °REVERSE PHASE HPLC: Here, stationary phase is non polar and mobile phase is polar in nature. Polar components eluted first. Column size is same but modify to make a non polar by using long chain of hydrocarbons like C8,C12,C4,octadecyl and mixture of water and alcohol use as a solvent. In this case strong attraction between polar solvent and molecular in the mixture passed through column. So it is common phase of hplc [13-14]. 2.2TYPES OF HPLC TECHANIQES: -There are major four type of hplc as below, (1)Partition chromatography: In 1952, Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge were awarded a Noble prize in chemistry to development of these techniques. So it is first techniques which developed for the separation of components like amino acid. These chromatography principles are also applied to the thin layer chromatography, paper chromatography to separates the components. (2) Adsorption chromatography: The main hplc principle is based on adsorption. Here components can be separated because of difference in affinity of components towards normal or reverse phases [14]. (3) Ion exchange chromatography: It is most frequently used chromatography for the separation and purification of protein, nucleic acid, polypeptides, and other charged molecular. It is a succeful technique because of its high capacity, simplicity, and high resolution power. The main principle is base on reversible exchange of ions between ion present in the solution and those present in ion exchange resin [15]. ÂÂ ®Cation exchange:- Solid-H+ + M+ === solid-M+ + H+ (Solution) (Solution) ÂÂ ®Anion exchange: Solid-OH- + A- ==== solid-A- + OH- (Solution) (Solution). [14] Separation in ion exchange chromatography depends upon reversible adsorption of charged solute molecular to ion exchange group of opposite charge. Some of the functional group used in ion exchange chromatography is [16], NAME OF ANION FUNCTION GROUP Diethyl amino ethyl -O -CH2-CH2-N+H(CH2CH3)2 Quatemary amino ethyl -O-CH2-CH2-N+H(C2H5)2-CH2CHCH-CH3 NAME OF CATION FUNCTION GROUP Carboxymethyl -O-CH2-COO- SULPHOPROXY -O-CH2-CHOH-CH2-O-CH2-CH2SO3- (4)Size exclusion chromatography: It is also know as a gel chromatography. In 1959, Porath and Flodin described the separation of water soluble components by this chromatography. As soon as gel had commercially available, they were extensively used for the separating purpose [17]. Here gel used as molecular sieve and hence mixture of substance with different molecular sieze are separated. Soft gel like dextran, polyacrylamide are used [14]. It is used to analysis of synthetic polymers and oligomes, lipids, natural macromolecular like protein, glucose, cellulose derivatives, and crude oil alkenes [17]. HPLC techniques also has two different class like (a) analytical HPLC-it is used when analysis very small amount of sample are needed. And (b) preparative HPLC- it is used when separation of few gram of mixture by HPLC. But it is also can classified on base of separation and there are (a) analytical HPLC: Where only analysis of the samples is done. Recovery of the samples for reusing is normally not done, since the sample used is low. Eg. mg quantities. And other is (b) preparative HPLC: Where the individual fractions of pure compounds can be collected using fraction collector. The collected samples are reused eg. Separation of few grams of mixtures by HPLC [14]. 2.3 INSTRUMENTATION [13-14]: Brief introduction of instrumental techniques are as follows, (1)PUMP: Mechanical and pneumatic pump are used in hplc. Mechanical pump operates with constant flow rate where pneumatic pump operates with constant pressure. Its necessary to use pump because solvent must passed through column at high pressure. (2) SOLVENT DEGASSING: In isocratic techniques, mobile phase are prepared by using mixture of solvents, than passed through column with under high pressure resulting bubble formed, so it cannot give proper result or steady baseline. So before using solvent mixture in HPLC, degassing is necessary. So some of degassing technique is use like ultrasonication. HPLC (3)COLUMN: -Two types of column used in HPLC, ÂÂ ® Guard column: It is also known as safety column. Any impurities present in solvent or mobile phase which can predict by guard column. ÂÂ ®Analytical column: It widely use which can decided efficiency of separation. Different column size is available depending upon separation. Column made up of stainless stell, glass, poly ether ether kiton etc. (4)DETECTORS: -They are (a)UV detectors: Many organic compounds absorbed UV light of different wavelength. Two type of UV detectors are available depends on wavelength- short wavelength and long wavelength. By UV detector we can get direct reading is how much light is observed. (b) Flurometric detectors: It can be used for the substance which can absorbed florescence light. (c) Conductivity detectors (d) Refractive detectors (e)PDA detectors which are similar to UV detectors. (5)RECORDER: They are used to recorded response from detectors. It can record base line and retention time of peak. Now a day computer is used to recording data. 2.4 HPLC PARAMETERS: 2.4.1 INTERNAL DIAMETER: Internal diameter of the hplc column play an important role in detection or separation of compounds. For the laboratory use small column was used but in industrial level big column was used. 2.4.2 RETENTION TIME: it is a defined as a time between point of injection and appearance of peak. It measure in minute or seconds. 2.4.3 RETENTION VOLUME: Retention volume in the volume of mobile phase required eluting 50% of the compounds from the column, Retention time = Retention time.Flow rate. 2.4.4 PUMP PRESSURE: Pumps which are used in hplc very in pressure depends on separation. Modern HPLC system has been improved to work at high pressure so they are able to separate small particle size from mixture. 2.4.5 THEORETICAL PLATE: It is a functional unit of the column. Distribution of solute between stationary phase and mobile phase has attained equilibrium in the plate. High of the plate depends on efficiency of separation. It is knows as a HETP(HIGHT EQUIVELENT TO THEORITICAL PLATE). If HETP is less, than column is more efficient and if HETP is more, than column is less efficient. HETP is given by Van Deemter equation HETP = A + (B/u ) + Cu Where, A = Eddy diffusion term or multiple path diffusion which arises due to packing of the column. This is unaffected by mobile phase velocity or flow rate. This can be minimised by uniformity in packing. B = Longitudinal diffusion term or molecular diffusion which depends on flow rate. C = Effect of mass transfer which depends on flow rate. u = Flow rate or velocity of the mobile phase. 2.5 APPLICATION OF HPLC: High performance liquid chromatography has a large divergence of application. Initially it was just used to analysed antibiotic, vitamins by development of reverse phase [18]. High performance liquid chromatography can analysed very minor amount of substance like monograms at analytical scale to micrograms at preparative scale. It is used in a food analysis, biotechnology, biochemical separation, pharmaceutical field, and chemical industries like dyes, fatty acid, toiletry products [14].High performance liquid chromatography has a easy and good reproducibility so it has been widely use in clinical laboratory. One of the initially application of hplc in the field of clinical was quantification of theophyline in asthmatic infant [18]. Some of important applications are as likes,(a) Isolation of natural product,(b)Quantitative analysis or assay of product,(c)Identify, analysing and purification of compound mixture,(d)To check purity of compound mixture,(e) To find physical properties of compounds,(f)Used in analysing water pollution [18]. The quantity of amount is also determined by hplc which including following method [14], ÂÂ ® By comparing standard and sample peak area, the quantity of sample can be determined which is known as a DIRECT COMPRISION METHOD. ÂÂ ® To find concentration of sample by plotting graph between peak area vs. concentration of the standard drug and intrapolation of unknown sample which is known as CALIBRATION METHOD. Hplc play an important role in drug discovery with the combination of NMR. It is also useful to identify various chemical species with the combination with mass spectroscopy. It play valuable role in therapeutic drug monitoring to separation of drug from plasma which is quick process [14]. It has some advantages over other chromatography like, (a) Thin layer chromatography is inexpensive but it cant give batter resolution to compare HPLC. (b) Mass spectroscopy required a large capacity of maintain budget and skillfull person to run chromatography but in HPLC its not high budgt. (c) For the HPLC we have large number of mobile phase is available so we have versatility in choice of mobile phase as compare to other chromatography. (d) Atomatic injection system are available in HPLC, so its time saving and give high resolution as compare to other [20]. 2.6 LIMITATION OF HPLC: It is a time consuming method. Analysis of the compound mixture, mobile phase (mixture of components) are used resulting large amount of waste solution are obtained [14]. CHAPTER- 3 EXTERIMENT 3.1 AIM: The aim of project was to known batter separation of standard solution of Aloe Vera stem in mobile phase by using isocratic hplc techniques and find enzyme activity on it by using assay whether it is more potent or less potent. 3.2 CHROMATOGRAPHY EQUIPMENTS: 3.2.1 HPLC SYSTEM: This system is manufactured by Agilent technology 1200 series with model no G1310A and serial no DE62956545. 3.2.2 SOFTWEAR USED: The software used was Microsoft Windows XP. 3.2.3 COLUMN USED: The column used was Kromaril 5C18 which is made up of stainless still. 3.2.4 APPARATUS USED: Pipette with different size available like 1000land 5000ÂÂ µl, Analytical balance, Volumetric flask (10ml, 20ml), Funnel, 100ml Beaker, Measuring cylinder (500ml, 50ml, 20ml,10ml),Filter paper which made by Fischer scientific with size 0.45ÂÂ µm, Filter holder made up of pyrex brand glass. 3.2.5 PREPARATION OF MOBILE PHASE: The mobile phase used was a mixture of a methanol and water with ratio of 50:50. So take methanol and water, mix well, and filter to remove any solid particle followed by degassing to remove air bubble. Than it is ready for experiment. We are using isocratic system so mobile phase may vary in concentration like, 20:80, 30:70. 3.2.6 PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTION OF ALOE VERA: The standard solution of aloe vera stem was provided by Dr.solomon sir and after that i have to dilute in methanol to make up volume to 0.40mg/2ml. 3.3PROCEDURE: First set up the hplc system and run with mobile phase for half an hours. Than inject standard solution of aloe Vera stem and run for half an hours, take the graph. Now change the concentration of mobile phase and again repeat same procedure until you get batter separation. Then compare all graphs with each other and reach to conclusion. Here we were using two different wavelengths like 280nm and 360nm. 3.5 ASSAY: Assay technique was used to determined enzyme activity of a substance. Here we were using alpha-glucosidase enzyme. Basic principle involved in assay was, phosphate buffer contain free radical which has no colour but when it come across with standard solution, retain its colour after incubation. So colour change like colourless to yellow colour took place. SOLUTION USED IN ASSAY: Here we have to prepare solution for the assay was 25ÂÂ µl, 1.2 U/ml alpha-glucosidase, 25 ÂÂ µl of phosphate buffer, standard solution of aloe vera, 25 ÂÂ µl of 2.5 mM pNPG and finally if proper colour change was not occur than add terminating solution 100 ÂÂ µl of 0.2 M Na2Co3. 3.5.1 PROCUDURE: 1 2 3 4 E 1 2 3 4 5 6 BLANK Concentration in raw at no 1-0.50mg/ml, raw no 2- 0.25mg/ml, raw no 3- o.125mg/ml, and raw no 4- 0.0625mg/ml. Here all the column from 1 to 6 filled by 25ÂÂ µl,1.2 U/ml alpha-glucosidase, then add 25ÂÂ µl of phosphate buffer , add 25ÂÂ µl of test solution, and finally add 25ÂÂ µl of 2.5 mM pNPG. And then transfer 2.5ÂÂ µl solution from low concentration to high concentration. Than kept mixture for some time and incubate plate at 37ÂÂ °C for 10 min. and tested absorbance.